•^. 


SOCIOLOGY 


JOHN  M. GILLETTE 


The  National  Social  Science  Series 

Edited  by  Frank  L.  McVey,  Ph.D.,  LL.D., 
President  of  the  University  of  North  Dakota 

Now  Ready 

SOCIOLOGY.  John  M.  Gillette,  Professor  of  Soci- 
ology, The  University  of  North  Dakota. 

THE  AMERICAN  CITY.  Henry  C.  Wright,  First 
Deputy  Commissioner,  Department  of  PubHc  Chari- 
ties, New  York  City. 

GOVERNMENT  FINANCE  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES.  Carl  C.  Plehn,  Professor  of  Finance, 
The  University  of  California. 

THE  COST  OF  LIVING.  Walter  E.  Clark,  Pro- 
fessor and  Head  of  the  Department  of  Political 
Science,  The  College  of  the  City  of   New  York. 

TRUSTS  AND  COMPETITION.  John  F.  Crowell, 
Associate  Editor  of  the  Wall  Street  Journal. 

MONEY.  William  A.  Scott,  Director  of  the  Course 
in  Commerce,  and  Professor  of  Political  Economy, 
The  University  of   Wisconsin. 

TAXATION.  C.  B.  Fillebrown,  President  Massa- 
chusetts Single  Tax  League,  Author  oi  A  B  C  of 
Taxation. 

THE  FAMILY  AND  SOCIETY.  John  M.  Gillette. 
Professor  of  Sociology,  The  University  of  North 
Dakota. 

BANKING.     William  A.  Scott. 

THE  CAUSE  AND  CURE  OF  CRIME.  Charles  R. 
Henderson,  late  Professor  of  Sociology,  The  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago. 

Each,  Fifty  Cents  Net 

A.  C.  McCLURG  &  CO.,  PUBLISHERS,  CHICAGO 


The  National  Social  Science  Series 

Edited  by  Frank  L.   McVey,  Ph.D.,  LL.D., 
President   of   the   University   of  North   Dakota 

In  Preparation 


PROPERTY  AND  SOCIETY.  A.  A.  Bruce,  Asso- 
ciate Justice  Supreme  Court.  Xorth  Dakota,  Com- 
missioner on  Uniform  State  Laws,  etc. 

STATISTICS.  W.  B.  Bailey,  Assistant  Professor  of 
Political  Economy,  Yale  University. 

BASIS  OF  COMMERCE.  E.  V.  Robinson,  formerly 
Professor  of  Economics.  The  University  of  Minne- 
sota, late  Professor.  Columbia  University. 

WOMEN  WORKERS  AND  SOCIETY.  Annie  M. 
MacLe.AiN,  Assistant  Professor  of  Sociologjs  The 
University  of   Chicago. 

THE  NEWSPAPER  AS  A  SOCIAL  FACTOR. 
Allan  D.  Albert,  Former  Editor  Minneapolis  Trib- 
une, President  International  Association  of  Rotary 
Qubs. 

THE  STRUGGLE  FOR  LAND  IN  AMERICA. 
Charles  W.  Holman,  Editorial  writer,  expert  of 
L^nited  States  Industrial  Commission,  Secretary  of 
National  Conference  on  Marketing  and  Farm  Credits. 

MODERN  PHILANTHROPY.  Eugene  T.  Lies,  Gen- 
eral Superintendent.  Chicago  United  Charities,  Lec- 
turer Chicago  School  of  Civics  and  Philanthropy.  Di- 
rector Illinois  Commission  on  Social  Legislation. 

ESSENTI.\LS  OF  FOREIGN  TRADE.  John  F. 
Crowell^  Associate  Editor  of  the  Wall  Street  Journal. 

POPULATION.  E.  Dana  Durand,  Former  Director 
United  States  Census.  Professor  of  Statistics,  The 
University  of  Minnesota. 

COOPERATION.  L.  D.  H.  Weld.  Professor  of  Busi- 
ness Administration,   Yale   University. 


SOCIOLOGY 


BY 

John  M.  Gillette,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Sociology  in  the  Uni'versity  of  North  Dakota, 

Author  of  "Vocational  Education,"    "Constructi<ve 

Rural  Sociology, ' '  and  ' '  The  Family  and  Society ' ' 


CHICAGO 

A.  C.  McCLURG  &  CO. 

1916 


Copyright 

A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co. 

1916 


Published  May,  1916 


Copyrighted  in  Great  Britain 


EDITOR'S  PREFACE 

THERE  are  many  books  on  Sociology ;  nearly 
all    of    them,    however,    rather    ponderous 
tomes  of   forbidding  aspect  to  the  reader  who 
approaches  the  subject  for  the  first  time.     The 
j^   application  of  scientific  principles  to  social  data 
•^   has  brought  about  a  systematizing  of  material, 
and  the  development  of  a  rough  approximation 
S?  to  a  science.     This  science  is  now  called  Sociol- 
^    ogy.    To  bring  together  the  main  features  of  this 
<    science  in  a  small  volume  for  the  general  reader 
is  the  purpose  of  the  author.     The  book  should 
open  the  way  to  a  larger  appreciation  of  what 
is  going  on  in  the  study  of  social  phenomena. 

F.  L.  M. 


^r^C?'-t 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 

THERE  is  some  justification  for  a  small  vol- 
ume on  sociology  which  the  public  gen- 
erally may  read,  and  perhaps  study  clubs  and 
secondary  schools  may  use  as  a  guide.  I  do  not 
question  the  usefulness  of  such  a  book  if  organ- 
ized and  readable.  When  so  many  issues  are 
placed  before  the  public,  and  such  diverse  views 
as  to  appropriate  collective  action  exist,  there  is 
a  serious  demand  for  a  broader  sociological 
knowledge  which  will  steady  the  judgment  and 
help  decide  questions  on  principle.  The  study 
of  society  as  an  evolution,  the  consideration  of 
the  constitution  of  societal  life,  and  reflection 
upon  the  methods  by  which  society  is  controlled 
and  improved,  should  give  a  basis  for  the  form- 
ing of  judgments  about  what  should  be  under- 
taken, and  of  a  rational  optimism  as  to  the  final 
realization  of  a  better  social  order. 

The  popular  conception  of  the  nature  of  so- 
ciology is  often  hazy  and  requires  information. 
Sociology  is  liable  to  be  identified  with  slum- 
ming, charity  and  philanthropy,  empty  observa- 
tions of  public  spectacles,  socialism,  and  kindred 
phenomena.     While  all  of  these  items  may  fur- 


Author's  Preface 


nish  data  for  sociological  generalizations,  a  brief 
study  of  the  subject  of  sociology  will  serve  to 
distinguish  it  from  any  and  all  of  them. 

This  book  pretends  to  be  merely  an  introduc- 
tion to  the  study  of  sociology.  There  is  nothing 
original  in  it  except  that  it  is  the  formulation 
and  views  of  a  teacher  and  student  of  the  vast 
field  of  sociology.  It  was  prepared  to  meet  the 
demands  of  those  who  have  some  curiosity  about 
the  nature  of  society  and  sociology,  but  have 
not  a  great  deal  of  time  in  which  to  satisfy  it. 
Sufficient  references  accompany  the  various  chap- 
ters to  enable  the  reader  and  student  to  make  a 
larger  study  of  the  subject,  and  it  is  hoped  that 
this  simple  outline  will  not  extinguish  any  whole- 
some craving  for  information,  but  may  even 
whet  the  appetite  for  subsequent  and  more  ex- 
tensive investigations. 

John  M.  Gillette. 
University  of  North  Dakota. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Chapter  I.  )The  Science  of  Sociology    ....  1 

Sx»cioTog-y  as  a  Science 1 

Development  of  Sociology 2 

The  Task  of  Sociology 3 

Sociology  and  Other  Social  Sciences     ...  5 

Chapter  II.    The  Origin  of  Society 9 

Where  Society   Begins 10 

Continuity  of  Human  and  Animal  Societies  13 

Earliest  Human  Society 15 

Chapter  III.     Origin  of  Races  and  Institutions  19 

Sociological  Meaning  of  Institutions     ...  20 

Origin  of  Races 21 

Language       24 

The  State 26 

Religion 29 

The  Industrial  Order 34 

The   Family       37 

Education           41 

Chapter  IV.    The  Nature  of  Social  Evolution    .  45 

Evolution  as  Quantitative  Transfornxation     .  45 

As   Qualitative  Transformation 46 

As   Diversification 48 

As  Integration 49 

As  Accommodation       50 

Social  and  Biological  Evolution 51 


Contents 


PAGE 

Chapter  V.     Factors  Which   Determine    Social 

Evolution       54 

The  Physical  Environment 54 

Inherent  Impulses  and  Desires 57 

Race  Stock 60 

Stage  of  Culture 62 

Nature  of  External  Social  Groups     ....  64 

Chapter  VI.     The  Nature  of  Society    ....  66 

Older  Conceptions 66 

Theories    Expressing   the    Psychical    Nature 

of  Society 69 

Conclusion 72 

Chapter  VII.     The  Social  Order 76 

Evidence  of  a   Social   Order 76 

Causes  of  the  Order 78 

Social  Organization  and  Social  Order       .     .  82 

Changing  the  Social  Order 85 

Chapter  VIII.    The  Social  Mind 88 

What  It  Is 88 

What  Makes  It  Possible 91 

Its  Coercive  and  EvaUiating  Aspects    ...  94 

The  Direction  of  the  Social  Mind     ....  98 

Chapter  IX.     Social  Selection 101 

Society  and   Natural   Selection 101 

The    Factor    of    Mutuality 103 

The  Method  of  Social  Selection 107 

Chapter  X.    Progress  and  its  Conditions     .     .     .110 

The    Nature    of    Progress 110 

Possibility  of  Progress U4 

Conditions  of  Progress 119 


Contents 

PAGE 

Chapter  XI.    The  Equalization  of  Opportunity  .  123 

Equality  and  Social  Justice 123 

Removal  of  Artificial  Restrictions     ....  127 

Direction  of  Equalization 130 

Chapter  XII.    The  Elimination  of  the  Unfit    .     .  135 

The  Situation 136 

The    Origin    of   the    Unfit 137 

Elimination   of   the   Unfit 140 

References 147 

Index 155 


SOCIOLOGY 


CHAPTER  I 

THE    SCIENCE    OF    SOCIOLOGY 

WHILE  this  small  volume  does  not  purport 
to  represent  in  an  explicit  manner  the 
science  of  sociology,  it  does  suggest  that  there 
may  be  such  a  science.  As  a  consequence,  some 
explanation  should  be  made  of  what  sociology 
treats  and  what  its  relation  is  to  other  sciences. 

Sociology  a  Science 

In  saying  that  sociology  is  a  science  the  term 
science  is  used  in  its  ordinary  sense.  There  are 
those  who  say  that  sociology  is  not  a  science.  If 
by  science  is  meant  absolute  exactitude  and  pre- 
dictability, the  charge  is  true.  But  the  statement 
is  equally  applicable  to  most  of  the  subjects  that 
are  now  denominated  sciences,  for  the  element  of 
exactitude  and  the  basis  of  prediction  are  very 
small  in  all  save  astronomy  and  portions  of 
physics  and  chemistry.  With  reference  to  the 
social  science  group,  there  are  none  in  which  the 
generalizations  as  a  whole  rest  on  a  scientific 
I 


2  Sociology 

statistical  basis  so  that  accurate  predictions  as 
to  the  future  relationships  among  their  phenomena 
may  be  made.  Only  the  somewhat  elastic  mean- 
ing of  the  term  science — that  it  consists  of  a  sys- 
tematic body  of  knowledge  from  which  tendencies 
in  phenomena  may  be  perceived — is  applicable 
to  most  of  the  sciences  and  to  the  social  sciences 
in  particular.  But  such  a  body  of  knowledge  is 
useful  for  directive  purposes  and  it  furnishes  the 
foundation  for  a  development  toward  a  greater 
degree  of  exactitude.  Such  a  body  of  knowledge 
is  offered  in  sociology. 

Development  of  Sociology 

Sociology  is  one  of  the  newer  of  the  social 
sciences.  As  compared  with  the  age  of  history 
and  economics  it  is  a  mere  youth.  A  few  ideas 
which  are  of  a  sociological  nature  date  from  the 
time  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  but  no  general  science 
of  society  was  formulated  before  the  time  of 
August  Comte  and  Herbert  Spencer.  Each  of 
these  men  drew  up  a  system  of  social  philosophy 
to  which  was  given  the  name  of  sociology.  In 
the  United  States,  Lester  F.  Ward  was  the  first 
to  develop  an  independent  system  of  social 
philosophy. 

The  science  of  sociology  has  had  a  rapid 
growth  in  the  United  States  and  has  become  a 
regular  part  of  the  curriculum  in  most  of  the  col- 
leges and  universities.    In  England,  since  the  time 


TJic  Science  of  Sociology 


of  Herbert  Spencer,  it  has  developed  but  little 
until  recently,  probably  because  Spencer  demon- 
strated so  effectually  to  Englishmen  that  while 
human  intervention  might  greatly  harm  society  it 
could  do  little  toward  its  improvement.  The 
science  of  economics  as  formulated  by  the  Ger- 
mans has  been  so  largely  of  a  general  sociological 
nature  that  little  need  has  been  found  for  a  so- 
ciology until  recently.  But  during  recent  times 
German  economists  and  other  social  scientists 
have  insisted  that  a  demand  exists  for  such  a 
science,  and  as  a  consequence  sociology  is  being 
developed  and  established  as  a  part  of  the  cur- 
ricula of  higher  institutions  of  learning.  Else- 
where in  Europe  it  is  exhibiting  a  sustained 
growth. 

The  Task  of  Sociology 

The  late  arrival  of  sociology  was  largely  due 
to    the    difficulty    encountered    in    reducing   the 
phenomena  of  a  complicated  social  order  to  gen- 
eralizations of  a  simple  and  universal  character. 
[or_the  task  of  a  sociology  is  to  put  into  scien- 
[tific  form  the  plain  perception  that  there  is  such 
a  thing  as  society,  that  it  is  constituted  of  many 
parallel  as   well   as   conflicting  mtcrests.   that  it 
has  had  an  origin  and  an  evolution  in  which  by 
some  means  and  in  some  manner  the  various  in- 
tgfests  have  preserved  a  unity,  that  it  is  based  on 
prmciples  which  may  be  discovered  and  under- 


4  Sociology 

stood,  and  that  an  understandingof  these  prin- 
cigtSsenables  a  given~society  to  modify  the  course 
of  its  own  development.  As  yet  sociology  has 
impertectly  accomplished  this  task,  but  it  has 
made  praiseworthy  advances  toward  that  realiza- 
tion. A  judgment  regarding  whether  it  will  be 
able  to  discover  a  single  principle  of  explana- 
tion,  or  will  be  constructed  on  the  basis  of  many 
pnnciples,  lies  in  the  future.     And  while  there 

ris'^riTrggenr^^diversityof  view  and  method  of 
treatment  among  professional  sociologists,  there 
is  "nevertheless  ftmdamcntal  agrcLiueiit  as  to  the 


I    nature~oT~s"ociety  and""t"h"e  "larger  teatures  oi-the 
*''~n_ascent  science,    ^ut  there  should  be  little  ques- 
tion as  to  the  utility  of  a  science  which  attempts 
to  give  an  intelligent  account  of  the  total  collec- 
tive life  regarded  as  a  totality.    The  human  mind 
will  never  rest  until  it  has  accomplished  this  task, 
and  many^cpnsiderations  of  practical  import  de- 
mand that  such  a  discipljnejjejworked  out. 
^^      I^js_lhe_business  of  sociology  to  explain  that 
A      great_2ll^^IP^"Q"  which  we  term  human  society 

t ^s  a  rollertivity To  accomplish  this  it  would  be  ' 

necessary  to  give  an  account  of  the  origin  and 
evolution  of  society,  of  the  forces  or  conditions 
which  cause  its  development  or  retardation,  of 
the  principles  on  which  its  organization  depends, 
of  the  principles  of  progress,  of  the  possibility 
of  effectual  human  intervention,  and  of  the 
agencies  by  which  social   control   and   direction 


The  Science  of  Sociology 


are  to  be  attained.  Sociology  seeks  to  make 
society  an  object  of  scientific  study  in  the  same 
manner  that  biology,  for  example,  makes  tlir 
pfiysical  organism  an  object  of  its  study.  And 
aT^ology  seeks  to  discover  the  constitutent  parts 
and  Tunction?  of  the  organism,  their  relation  to 
each  other  and~to  the  whole  organism,  and_the 
lavv^  of  growth,  so  sociology  is  concerned  with 
the^  study  of  social  structures  and  functions,  their 
interrelationships,  tneir  relationships  with  the  to- 
tal  collective  life,  and  the  principles  of  develop- 
menT  and  the  laws  of  progress. 

Sociology  and  Other  Social  Sciences 

Since  it  is  the  undertaking  of  sociology  to 
view  society  as  a  whole  and  always  to  view  indi- 
viduals and  phenomena  in  their  relation  to  this 
totality,  there  can  be  no  difficulty  in  distinguish- 
ing that  science  from  the  other  social  sciences, 
such  as  economics,  politics,  anthropology,  and 
history.  Without  attempting  an  exhaustive  ex- 
amination of  all  the  social  sciences  in  relation  to 
sociology  or  of  those  considered  in  this  relation*- 
ship,  it  may  prove  useful  to  suggest  the  relation 
of  two  or  three  of  the  other  social  sciences  to 
sociology.  As  a  preliminary  statement,  however, 
it  is  necessary  to  point  out  that  the  essential  dif- 
ference in  general  between  sociology  and  those 
sciences  consists  in  the  fact  that  sociology  seeks 
to  correlate  all  of  the  fundamental  lines  of  human 


Sociology 

particular  i 
asls7  while  each  of  the  other  socfal  sciences 


interests,  giving  no ^garticular  interest  speciajjem- 
~  ^hoTl 


essentially  confines  its"  attentioiTTo  one  great  in- 
terest, treating  other  interests  only  in  so  far  as 
they  have  a  bearing  on  the  dominant  interest 
chosen  for  emphasis. 

There  are  two  sciences  which  deal  with  the 
earlier  life  of  mankind  —  anthropology  and  eth- 
nology. The  first  gives  an  account  of  the  origin 
and  development  of  man  as  a  physical  individual, 
and  of  the  origin  and  classification  of  races  as  a 
physical  fact.  Ethnology,  while  it  may  cover 
some  of  that  ground,  chiefly  considers  primitive 
man  in  his  group  and  cultural  aspects,  dealing 
with  the  beginnings  of  artifacts,  science,  belief, 
systems  of  numbers  and  language,  and  of  insti- 
tutions in  general.  Because  the  other  social 
sciences  devote  themselves  to  civilized  man,  an- 
thropology and  ethnology  restrict  themselves  to 
primitive  man.  In  so  far  as  sociology  attends 
to  the  primitive  field  it  considers  the  origin  of 
society  as  such,  and  gives  only  a  generalized 
account  of  the  origin  and  development  of  par- 
ticular institutions. 

The  science  of  politics,  or  of  government  and 
law,  devotes  its  attention  to  the  political  interest. 
It  seeks  to  explain  how  government  originates, 
to  give  a  causal  account  of  the  great  stages  of 
j)olitical  development,  to  consider  the  agencies 
and  means  by  which  the  governmental  purpose  is 


The  Science  of  Sociology 


executed,  and  to  designate  tendencies  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  state  and  methods  of  better- 
ment. Thus  government  or  politics  explains  how 
peoples  and  communities  realize  their  collective 
purposes  by  establishing  state  agencies.  But  poli- 
tics concerns  itself  with  society  in  general  and 
with  other  fundamental  interests  and  processes 
only  in  so  far  as  those  matters  have  a  bearing  on 
government  and  political  afifairs.  Customs,  man- 
ners, and  the  working  of  the  social  mind  are  facts 
and  items  which  for  most  part  are  outside  the 
pale  of  political  considerations,  yet  they  are  big 
factors  in  society  at  large.  These,  together  with 
the  correlation  of  social  interests  in  general,  it  is 
the  function  of  sociology  to  interpret. 

While  government  deals  with  collective  action 
and  purpose  as  they  realize  themselves  through 
the  state,  economics  treats  chiefly  of  voluntary 
individual  and  collective  efforts  directed  toward 
the  satisfaction  of  wealth  interests.  Conse- 
quently, economics  explains  the  nature  of  the 
material  wants,  how  they  create  goods  or  wealth, 
considers  the  factors  of  production  in  their  rela- 
tion to  the  production  of  wealth,  the  mechanism 
of  exchange  and  distribution,  the  principles  of 
finance  and  taxation,  and  allied  topics.  And  while 
the  wealth  interest  is  a  tremendous  factor  in 
human  society  its  consideration  does  not  exhaust 
the  category  of  human  interests  nor  explain  the 
synthesis  of  interests  save  as  related  to  material 


8  Sociology 

satisfactions.  Human  nature  lies  behind  the 
wealth  interest,  and  that  interest  is  conditioned 
by  conventions,  customs,  beliefs,  social  currents 
of  almost  a  cosmical  sweep,  class  and  caste  preju- 
dice, and  racial  antipathies,  which  it  is  the  busi- 
ness of  sociology  to  treat,  together  with  its  gen- 
eral synthetic  task. 

Thus  it  is  to  be  observed  that  to  each  social 
science  is  given  its  particular  and  special  task  in 
the  total  economy  of  the  social  sciences.  No  one 
of  these  sciences  can  do  the  work  of  the  others 
save  at  the  expense  of  changing  its  nature  and 
ceasing  to  be  itself.  Their  relationship  is  not  a 
question  of  priority,  of  superior  dignity,  or  of 
higher  and  lower.  Each  one  is  dignified  in  the 
doing  of  its  work  well.  On  the  basis  of  the  divi- 
sion of  labor  pertaining  to  each  and  all  of  them 
working  together  in  a  common  domain  there 
should  obtain  among  the  social  sciences  the  larg- 
est measure  of  cooperation. 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  ORIGIN   OF   SOCIETY 


IT  is  necessary  to  distinguish  between  the  dif- 
ferent meanings  of  the  term  society.  The 
sociological  meaning  of  "society"  is  distinct  from 
that  employed  popularly  in  such  phrases  as  "  the 
best  society,"  and  "  going  into  society."  This 
popular  use  of  the  term  reflects  a  narrow,  special 
significance,  pertaining,  as  it  does,  to  but  one  fea- 
ture of  the  group  life.  Even  among  sociologists 
and  social  scientists  generally  the  term  "  society  " 
possesses  several  meanings.  It  is  employed  as  a 
generic  term  to  express  the  characteristics  of 
associational  life  in  general;  it  is  used  also  to 
denote  various  special  forms  of  group  life,  such 
as  the  family,  the  state,  the  city,  the  nation,  the 
church,  and  organized  labor.  Hence,  it  appears 
that  the  word  "  society,"  when  used  sociologically, 
may  mean  human  associations  generally,  just  as 
"  humanity  "  signifies  all  kinds  of  men ;  or  a  par- 
ticular society  like  the  city  or  nation  ;  or  a  group 
of  men  within  a  given  society  who  are  bound  to- 
gether by  a  strong  common  interest  such  as  com- 
mercial, labor,  and  other  kinds  of  organizations ; 
or,  finally,  it  may  mean  the  civilized  world  viewed 
in  its  associational  aspect.     The  last  interpreta- 

9 


lo  Sociology 

tion  corresponds  to  tlie  "  world-society,"  so  far 
as  one  exists ;  for,  of  course,  a  complete  world- 
society  cannot  appear  until  all  races  and  groups 
of  men  are  brought  into  an  inter  functioning  rela- 
tionship with  one  another. 

Where  Society  Begins 

Sociologists  have  engaged  in  an  interesting  dis- 
cussion of  the  question.  Where  does  society  be- 
gin? That  their  conclusions  differ  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  they  have  not  agreed  in  their  choice  of 
characteristics  which  shall  serve  as  the  criterion 
of  societal  life.  Thus  one  eminent  waiter  lays 
emphasis  on  the  rational  factor,  to  the  exclusion 
of  the  instincts  and  emotions  and,  as  a  conse- 
quence, he  places  the  origin  of  society  neither 
among  animals  nor  at  the  beginning  of  the  human 
species  but  far  up  in  the  course  of  the  evolution 
of  man.  Another  distinguished  writer  goes  to 
the  other  extreme,  and  noting  the  ease  and  celer- 
ity with  which  emotional  phenomena  sweep 
through  vast  populations,  he  makes  suggestion 
the  criterion  of  society.  Upon  this  basis  society 
would  have  its  origin  in  the  course  of  evolution 
wherever  the  psychical  process  of  suggestion 
makes  its  appearance. 

While  neither  position  is  correct  in  character- 
izing the  essentials  of  society,  the  latter  view  per- 
mits the  closer  approximation  to  the  origin  of 
society.     Society  embraces  both  cooperation  and 


TJic  Origin  of  Society  ii 

conflict,  and  a  theory  of  its  origin  must  allow  for 
both  processes.  It  also  is  founded  on  both  the 
emotional  and  rational  processes,  the  latter  con- 
stituting the  dominating  factor  in  the  most  ad- 
vanced stages  of  social  evolution  but  being  cor- 
respondingly vague  and  feeble  in  the  earliest 
stages. 

On  the  emotional  side,  there  are  certain  in- 
stincts common  to  the  higher  animals,  at  least, 
which  impelled  toward  a  collective  existence. 
Sex,  maternal  and  parental  instincts,  and  the  love 
of  companionship  are  sufficient  to  account  for 
the  initial  small  and  somewhat  durable  groupings. 
The  maternal  and  parental  instincts  could  be 
operative  forces  only  among  the  higher  animals, 
since  they  do  not  appear  among  the  lower  ones. 
Sex  appears  to  have  made  its  appearance  among 
the  metazoa,  so  that  sex  instinct  must  have  acted 
as  a  uniting  bond,  of  at  least  a  temporary  nature, 
among  all  forms  of  life  since  the  protozoon  stage. 
Gregariousness  is  a  phenomenon  of  practically  all 
forms  of  life,  but  whether  among  the  lowest 
forms  the  love  of  companionship  serves  as  the 
nexus  it  is  difficult  to  say,  for  it  is  conceivable 
that  some  of  the  various  tropisms  act  as  the 
segregating  agent. 

Society  of  a  more  rational  type  undoubtedly 
emerges  whenever  plastic  imitation  appears,  and 
this  is  noticed  among  the  higher  animals.  The 
young  animal  learns  many  fighting,  hunting,  and 


12  Sociology 

cooperative  actions  by  observing  and  imitating 
the  activities  of  the  adults.  Indeed  it  is  often 
the  case  that  the  parents  actively  engage  in  the 
process  of  teaching  their  young  fighting,  flying, 
and  hunting  tactics.  Each  new  generation  learns 
the  reactions  of  the  preceding  generation,  among 
which  is  a  considerable  fund  of  societal  responses 
—  namely,  cooperative  actions.  Occasionally, 
very  infrequently  indeed,  a  useful  variation  ap- 
pears and  because  it  is  useful  it  is  imitated  and 
transmitted  to  succeeding  generations,  by  which 
means  society  slowly  evolves.  But  not  until  man 
comes  upon  the  scene  and  undergoes  considerable 
mental  evolution  does  the  rational  factor  enter 
largely  as  a  positive  contributing  agent  to  social 
evolution. 

Imitation  doubtless  accounts  for  initial  like- 
mindedness,  agreement,  cooperation ;  but  alone  it 
cannot  account  for  disagreement  and  conflict. 
The  power  to  imitate  is  the  product  of  heredity 
and  is  based  on  the  biological  inheritance  of  sim- 
ilar nervous  and  other  bodily  structures.  But 
since  heredity  also  includes  variation  it  follows 
that  some  biological  structures  will  appear  which 
differ  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  from  the  parent 
structures.  The  reactions  of  these  structures  are 
not  always  of  the  passively  imitative  kind,  and 
the  variants  may  be  counted  on  to  come  into  con- 
flict at  times  with  the  group  custom.  Especially 
when  the  rational  element,  as  in  the  case  of  man, 


The  Origin  of  Society 


has  developed  considerably  does  the  conflict  of 
interest  become  strong,  for  the  desire  of  posses- 
sion, unmodified  by  altruism,  is  sufficient  to  impel 
the  individual  or  groups  of  individuals  having 
interests  in  common  against  the  current  of  the 
common  weal. 

This  insufficient  outline  of  the  stage  of  evolu- 
tion at  which  society  originates  indicates  thai 
society  had  begun  long  before  the  appearance  of 
the  human  species.  But  it  is  essential  to  observe, 
however,  that  not  all  seeming  societal  animal 
groupings  are  necessarily  such.  Thus  the  forma- 
tion of  a  flock  of  swans  when  swimming  and  of 
geese  when  flying  is  possibly  wholly  a  biological 
matter,  being  transmitted  by  means  of  physical 
inheritance  and  unmodified  by  experience.  But 
the  dam-building  of  beavers,  nest-construction  of 
birds,  and  tactics  of  hunting  and  associating  of 
animals  generally  are  susceptible  of  modification 
by  group  experience  and  in  a  measure  are  con- 
tinued by  the  process  of  social  heredity. 

Continuity  of  Human  and  Animal  Societies 

A  large  part  of  the  most  fruitful  scientific 
insight  attained  in  biological  and  sociological  fields 
has  come  as  the  result  of  viewing  life  and  society 
as  evolutionary  processes.  Were  the  develop- 
mental principles  embedded  in  modem  biological, 
psychological,  and  sociological  thought  eliminated 
there  would  be  left  almost  an  empty  shell.    Suffi- 


1 4  Sociology 

cient  evidence  has  been  gathered  to  demonstrate 
the  truth  of  evolution  to  fair-minded  people.  It 
is  not  in  place  now  to  give  that  evidence  and  we 
will  take  the  truth  of  evolution  for  granted. 

It  is  sufficient  to  remind  ourselves  that  man  is 
the  descendant  of  a  long  series  of  ancestral  ani- 
mal forms  having  their  beginning  with  the  unicel- 
lular organism.  His  more  immediate  ancestor 
was  not  the  ape  or  the  monkey,  but  a  member  of 
a  stock  of  which  these  forms  were  variants. 
What  our  remote  human  ancestor  was  like  we 
now  begin  to  comprehend  from  a  study  of  recent 
archeological  remains,  such  as  the  Javanese  Man 
(Pithecanthropus  Erectus),  the  Heidelberg  Man, 
the  Neanderthal  Man,  and  the  Sussex  Man.  The 
gap  between  man  and  his  animal  ancestors  is 
being  filled  in  by  such  "  missing  links,"  and  the 
idea  of  physical  continuity  is  hardly  any  longer 
a  "  theory." 

Believing  in  man's  physical  descent,  there  can 
be  little  difficulty  in  conceiving  of  man's  intellec- 
tual descent ;  or,  as  Drummond  preferred  to  call 
it,  man's  "  ascent."  Mind  is  invariably  associated 
with  body  and  it  unfolds  itself  in  its  structural 
and  functional  manifestation  as  fast  as  the  phys- 
ical mechanism  attains  organization.  The  senses 
appear  with  the  formation  of  the  special  sense 
organs  and  intelligence  grows  apace  with  the  de- 
velopment of  brain  and  the  differentiation  of  the 
nervous  structure. 


The  Origin  of  Society  15 

In  like  manner  we  conceive  there  has  been  a 
continuous  series  of  societies  from  the  time  when 
the  first  genuine  social  plasm  arose  down  to  the 
present.  The  fund  of  experience  has  accumu- 
lated gradually  throughout  the  existence  of  all 
those  myriads  of  succeeding  generations,  making 
itself  felt  in  the  direction  of  modifying  individual 
actions  but  slightly,  but  gaining  qualifying  and 
checking  power  with  its  increase,  until,  as  thought, 
sentiment,  custom,  organization,  it  wields  an  im- 
perial scepter.  Social  instincts  and  sympathies 
have  intensified ;  race  experience  has  enlarged 
until  it  has  taxed  the  mechanism  of  transmission ; 
altruism  and  reason  have  expanded  and  changed 
the  course  of  events.  But  in  a  fundamental  sense 
the  mighty  civilization  of  today  is  the  oflfspring 
and  descendant  of  the  narrow,  shrinking  animal 
society  of  millions  of  years  ago. 

Earliest  Human  Society 

No  one  knows  exactly  what  the  first  human 
society  was  like,  but  it  must  have  been  slightly 
more  advanced  than  the  society  of  the  highest 
kinds  of  animals,  such  as  that  of  the  apes,  and 
less  advanced  than  that  of  present  primitive  men, 
such  as  the  Akkas  of  Africa,  the  Veddahs  of 
Ceylon,  and  the  Fuegians  of  Patagonia.  Present 
primitive  men,  although  low  down  in  the  societal 
scale,  do  not  by  any  means  represent  initial  primi- 


1 6  Sociology 

tive  man.  Ethnologists  have  arrived  at  the  opin- 
ion, as  the  result  of  the  discoveries  of  human 
remains  in  undisturbed  strata  of  the  early  quater- 
nary and  possibly  the  late  tertiary  geological 
periods,  that  man  appeared  approximately  one- 
half  million  to  one  million  years  ago.  Examina- 
tion of  skeletons  and  restorations  of  skeletons 
from  skulls,  femurs,  and  other  skeletal  fragments 
has  demonstrated  that  there  have  been  two  or 
three  distinct  stages  of  anatomical  development 
below  the  present  human  form.  We  must  con- 
ceive an  accompanying  form  of  association  which 
would  be  appropriate  to  less  developed  brains 
and  minds.  Our  present  primitive  groups  of  the 
most  undeveloped  type  are  kinship  groups,  but 
in  that  earliest  society  the  idea  of  kinship  had 
not  yet  originated.  But  what  is  the  most  like 
kinship  relation  and  was  the  foundation  of  it  is 
the  relation  between  mother  and  offspring. 
Mothers  would  protect  their  offspring  until  they 
were  able  to  care  for  themselves  and  it  would  be 
natural  for  the  young  when  grown  to  settle  near 
the  mothers.  We  could  thus  think  of  a  little  asso- 
ciation of  a  rather  loose  sort.  Perhaps  the 
fathers  formed  a  more  or  less  temporary  associa- 
tion with  the  mother  also,  and  a  weaker  one  with 
the  children.  In  time  the  ties  strengthened,  sen- 
timent grew,  benefits  from  cooperation  in  times 
of  danger  became  dimly  apparent.  Ultimately  the 
idea  of  kinship  developed.    When  this  point  was 


The  Origin  of  Society  17 

reached  human  society  of  a  permanent  and  some- 
what organized  type  was  born. 

The  characteristics  of  such  a  group  were  few 
and  meager.  The  love  of  companionship  un- 
doubtedly was  present.  The  reproductive  instinct 
must  have  been  the  dominant  bond  between 
adults,  and  maternal  and  filial  affection  the 
strongest  influences  among  adults  and  the  young. 
Reason  was  only  in  its  infancy  and  seldom  or 
never  made  collective  matters  an  object  of  atten- 
tion. The  social  relations  which  existed,  col- 
lective modes  of  action,  were  determined  by  cus- 
tom, and  were  changed  but  little  in  generations. 
Before  the  age  of  invention  the  food  supply  de- 
pended on  the  bounty  of  nature.  Populations 
in  given  localities  had  to  be  small  because  of  food 
limits.  When  numbers  increased  above  this  limit 
new  groups,  as  they  formed,  were  forced  to  mi- 
grate into  new  localities,  and  because  of  this  the 
typical  society  was  small.  A  premium  was  placed 
on  the  form  of  group  which  cooperated  to  in- 
crease the  supply  of  food.  Such  a  society  stood 
the  best  chance  of  survival,  and  ultimately  super- 
seded the  non-cooperative  kind.  Sympathy  of  an 
instinctive  sort  ameliorated  existence  but  little. 
Brute  strength  made  right,  and  altruism,  or  de- 
veloped sympathy,  was  yet  to  evolve  and  become 
a  checking  and  humanizing  force.  Religion, 
which,  when  it  arose,  developed  as  an  inference, 
could  not  appear  until  reason  became  stronger. 


1 8  Sociology 

Education  consisted  in  teaching  the  young  how  to 
get  food,  to  shelter  and  protect  themselves,  and 
perhaps  how  to  use  the  club  and  the  eolith. 

Having  thus  sketched  briefly  in  general  terms 
the  situation  in  which  society  arose,  and  the  ori- 
gin of  early  human  societal  groups,  we  are  pre- 
pared to  consider  somewhat  more  in  detail  those 
initial  beginnings  and  their  course  of  develop- 
ment. 


CHAPTER  III 

ORIGIN    OF   RACES   AND   INSTITUTIONS 

THE  sociolo^cal  conception  of  institutions  is 
somewhat  different  from  that  in  common 
use.  An  institution,  in  popular  opinion,  possesses 
the  characteristics  not  only  of  fixity  and  perma- 
nence, but  also  possesses  a  material  foundation 
and  form.  When  the  average  individual  thinks 
of  an  institution,  it  is  likely  that  his  chief  thought 
is  of  buildings  and  lands.  But  sociologically,  in- 
stitutions are  the  immaterial  forms  of  associa- 
tion, the  various  types  of  activities  into  which  the 
social  mind  is  organized,  and  the  fixed  ideas 
which  represent  social  processes.  Thus  the  insti- 
tutional characteristics  of  the  school  consists  in 
the  permanent  manner  society  is  organized  for 
the  purpose  of  training  its  citizenship.  The  pub- 
lic mind  is  organized  into  political  institutions  to 
carry  on  affairs  of  state.  In  a  real  sense  the  type- 
writer and  other  machines  are  institutions  because 
the  mechanical  principles  they  involve  are  per- 
manently imbedded  in  the  social  mind  as  ideas. 
Every  idea  which  persists  in  the  minds  of  many 
individuals  and  is  passed  on  to  succeeding  gen- 
erations has  an  institutional  aspect.  Conse- 
quently, the  term  institutions  embraces  not  only 
the  great  dominant  organizations  of  society,  but 
19 


20  Sociology 

customs,  conventions,  and  all  enduring  ideas  and 
modes  of  reacting. 

Sociological  Meaning  of  Institutions 

While,  indeed,  there  is  justification  for  consid- 
ering all  enduring  ideas  institutions,  as  a  matter 
of  convenience  in  sociology  it  is  desirable  to  treat 
certain  great  groups  of  ideas  which  are  organized 
about  centers  of  interest  as  representative  social 
institutions.  As  a  consequence,  the  activities  of 
individuals  are  observed  to  coordinate  themselves 
for  the  realization  of  several  great  motives  or 
interests.  While  somewhat  different  classifica- 
tions of  the  chief  interests  may  be  made,  the  most 
usable  one  for  our  purpose  is  found  in  viewing 
human  beings  as  organized  to  realize  their,  domes- 
tic, political,  religious,  industrial,  cultural,  and 
sociability  aims.  Practically  all  of  the  permanent 
ideas  involved  in  societal  life  are  associated  with 
these  larger  motives  and  assist  in  their  realiza- 
tion. Thus  the  ideas  of  beauty  would  constitute 
a  part  of  the  cultural,  those  of  health  would  fall 
within  the  political  arrangements  to  secure  sani- 
tation. Ethical  ideas,  however,  cannot  be  classi- 
fied under  any  one  of  these  heads  exclusively, 
since  they  involve  the  proper  adjustment  of  social 
relationship  in  all  lines  of  endeavor.  Again,  cer- 
tain fixed  ideas  such  as  language  and  numerical 
systems  do  not  represent  special  centers  of  inter- 
est  but   they   rather   constitute   necessary   basic 


Origin  of  Races  and  Institutions        21 

agencies  for  the  realization  of  fundamental  so- 
cietal motives. 

Origin  of  Races 

In  some  respects,  race  is  a  social  institution 
because  it  represents  a  persistent  idea  in  society, 
and  affects  the  method  of  coordinating  human 
beings.  But  because  in  its  origin  it  is  so  largely 
a  biological  product  and  because  it  does  not  rep- 
resent a  specific  sphere  of  societal  interest,  it  is 
best  to  accord  it  a  treatment  apart  from  and  prior 
to  social  institutions.  The  consideration  of  race 
is  important  because  race  and  the  results  of  race 
differences  have  been  influential  factors  in  the 
development  of  society.  Ethnic  differences  have 
acted  as  a  prominent  cause  of  nearly  all  wars,  and 
race  prejudice  plays  a  strong  part  in  our  race 
problems.  Class  dififerences,  and  especially  those 
of  caste,  are  due  in  part  to  racial  factors. 

Ethnologists  are  practically  agreed  that  the 
region  of  man's  origin  was  a  vast  one  comprising 
southern  Asia,  northern  Africa,  and  southern  and 
western  Europe,  including  the  southern  Baltic 
regions.  In  this  region  are  found  the  highest 
forms  of  both  extinct  and  existent  apes,  and  of 
the  most  undeveloped  prehistoric  man.  It  is  pos- 
sible that  the  original  human  race  stock  approxi- 
mated the  Caucasian,  since  the  Caucasian  is  the 
most  variable  of  the  races  and  its  prototype  would 
ofTer  a  plastic  foundation  for  differentiation. 


22  Sociology 

From  this  region  the  original  stock,  when  it 
became  populous,  and  perhaps  after  some  crude 
protective  and  offensive  weapons  had  been  in- 
vented, migrated  into  other  parts  of  the  world. 
Because  those  new  habitats  possessed  different 
environments,  such  as  climate  and  foods,  men 
underwent  physical  changes,  such  as  differenti- 
ations of  stature,  complexion,  form  of  head,  color 
and  form  of  hair,  color  and  shape  of  eyes,  and 
form  of  nose.  The  people  who  settled  to  the 
northeast  came  to  have  an  assemblage  of  those 
characteristics  seen  in  the  Mongolians,  differing 
essentially  from  that  of  the  original  stock.  Those 
who  settled  in  the  south  became  possessed  of  an- 
other assemblage  of  characteristics,  seen  in  the 
Negroes  and  other  dark  peoples.  No  doubt  the 
influence  of  light  in  making  protective  color  pig- 
ments, and  of  the  chemical  constituents  of  dif- 
ferent foods  acting  as  bleaching  constituents  had 
much  to  do  with  forming  complexions.  The 
structure  of  the  follicle  in  which  the  roots  of  the 
hair  is  embedded  accounts  for  the  form  of  the 
hair.  Other  changes  are  only  partly  accounted 
for. 

The  various  peoples  in  the  new  habitats  also 
built  up  distinctive  customs,  languages,  religions, 
and  it  must  have  required  ages  to  work  out  these 
physical  and  social  changes.  By  reason  of  the 
physical  and  social  transformations,  these  peoples 
became    distinctly   different,   and    in    after  ages 


Origin  of  Races  and  Institutions        23 

when  further  migrations  brought  portions  of  the 
now  distinct  races  into  contact  with  one  another, 
since  there  was  no  remembrance  of  common  ori- 
gin, they  met  as  entire  strangers.  Their  differ- 
ences, especially  those  of  appearance,  aroused 
deep-seated  prejudice,  as  the  new  and  the  strange 
always  do  among  the  majority  of  men.  Because 
friendship  was  based  on  kinship  and  non-kindred 
were  considered  enemies,  conflict  ensued  and 
the  stronger  either  killed  or  subordinated  the 
weaker  as  slaves ;  at  least,  race  prejudice  was 
ushered  in. 

In  much  the  same  manner,  within  a  given  race 
of  people  migrations  into  remote  regions  took 
place,  and  in  response  to  the  physical  environ- 
ment minor  physical  differences  appeared.  Like- 
wise language,  religion,  and  other  customs  under- 
went a  differentiation.  As  a  consequence,  when, 
in  later  times,  these  differentiated  groups  met 
they  were  enemies,  and  there  ensued  conflict,  ex- 
termination or  subordination.  In  the  case  of  the 
subordination  of  one  group  by  another,  a  com- 
pounding of  groups  took  place.  A  long  process 
of  fusion  by  intermarriage  and  social  readjust- 
ment then  occurred  until  at  last  a  resultant  society 
emerged.  In  their  turn,  compound  societies 
merged  and  fused  with  other  compound  groups, 
and  these  doubly  compounded  societies  com- 
pounded again  with  others  of  the  same  kind.  It 
was  by  means  of  such  compounding  and  conse- 


24  Sociology 

quent  expansion  of  societal  organization  that  our 
modern  nations  were  formed. 

Language 

The  institution  of  language  deserves  consider- 
ation as  typifying  the  basic  agencies  by  means  of 
which  societal  interests  in  general  are  realized. 
Like  many  other  social  phenomena,  language  had 
its  beginning  among  animals.  Under  a  system  of 
struggle  and  competition,  there  would  be  a  greater 
chance  of  survival  among  those  animals  which 
could  cooperate.  But  since  the  basis  of  coopera- 
tion is  the  ability  to  communicate,  cooperative 
groups  could  develop  only  in  so  far  as  their  mem- 
bers were  able  to  transfer  their  ideas,  and  the 
medium  of  this  was  a  communication  system,  ini- 
tially a  system  of  signs  and  sounds. 

It  is  well  established  that  the  higher  animals 
are  adepts  in  recognizing  the  significance  of  the 
actions,  attitudes,  and  movements  of  their  own 
kind  and  of  other  kinds  of  animals ;  and  that 
those  of  some  species  understand  and  employ 
numerous  cries  and  intonations.  Human  beings, 
as  they  emerged  from  the  brute  plane  of  exist- 
ence, possessed  these  facilities  of  communication, 
and  by  conscious  effort  expanded  and  perfected 
them.  But  as  Drummond  says,  "  Down  to  this 
present  hour  there  are  still  the  three  great  kinds 
of  language.  The  movement  of  foot  or  ear  has 
been  evolved  into  the  modern  gesture  or  grimace ; 


Origin  of  Races  and  Institutions       25 

the  note  or  cry  into  a  word,  and  the  intonation 
into  an  emphasis  or  inflection  of  the  voice." 

While  sign  language  possesses  advantages  for 
primitive  people  living  under  certain  conditions, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  Siouan  and  Cheyenne  In- 
dians inhabiting  the  plains,  and  while  it  is  still 
extensively  used  by  deaf-mutes,  it  is  not  suscep- 
tible to  that  differentiation  which  makes  possible 
the  transmission  of  the  minute  shades  of  thought 
civilization  demands,  nor  available  for  modern 
modes  of  communication.  Because  of  their  avail- 
ability, sounds  and  the  symbols  which  represent 
ideas  have  become  the  primary  vehicles  of  com- 
munication. Since  the  appearance  of  the  use  of 
sounds  to  transfer  ideas,  the  great  stages  of  the 
evolution  of  the  communicative  system  have  been 
the  development  of  different  kinds  of  words 
which  our  parts  of  speech  represent,  the  creation 
of  an  alphabet,  of  writing,  of  printing,  of  news- 
papers, of  the  telegraph  and  telephone.  Each  one 
of  these  stages  of  improvement  has  formed  the 
basis  of  a  larger  area  of  cooperative  efifort  and 
intensified  the  human  bond. 

Briefly  stated,  the  functions  which  language 
has  performed  are  as  follows:  (i)  it  developed 
in  response  to  a  social  demand,  since  a  communi- 
cating system  is  necessary  for  the  existence  of 
an  intensive  cooperative  life;  (2)  it  stimulated 
association  and  thus  promoted  survival  through 
cooperative  response;  (3)  it  furnished  a  vehicle 


26  Sociology 

for  the  exercise  of  intelligence  and  of  sympathetic 
understanding,  thus  promoting  intellectual  devel- 
opment, reducing  friction,  and  expanding  socia- 
bality ;  (4)  after  the  development  of  written  sym- 
bols a  record  of  events  became  possible,  thus  pro- 
viding for  the  perpetuation  of  a  knowledge  of 
the  past  and  laying  the  foundation  of  history  and 
of  science. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  whereas  language 
was  built  by  society  and  is,  as  a  consequence,  a 
product  of  cooperative  life,  at  the  same  time  it 
constituted  the  foundation  of  cooperation  and 
made  society  possible. 

The  State 

By  the  term  state  we  mean  any  people  that 
occupies  a  definite  territory  and  has  many  of  its 
activities  controlled  and  regulated  by  its  central 
government.  Many  a  priori  theories  have  sought 
to  explain  its  origin,  such  as  the  lawgiver,  the 
theocratic,  and  the  social  contract  theories.  These 
a  priori  theories  are  being  replaced  by  sociological 
conceptions.  Noted  sociologists,  such  as  Gum- 
plowicz,  Ratzenhofer,  and  Ward  have  espoused 
the  conflict  theory  of  origin.  According  to  this 
theory,  every  state  has  been  the  result  of  conflict, 
the  conquest  and  subordination  of  one  people  by 
another,  and  a  slow  gradual  fusion  of  the  two 
peoples  physically  and  culturally.  Previously, 
people  beaten  in  battle  had  been  exterminated  or 


Origin  of  Races  and  Institutions       27 

eaten.  When  men  became  advanced  enough  to 
make  use  of  captives  as  a  labor  force,  slavery 
ensued  from  war.  The  initial  state  arose  as  a 
system  devised  by  the  conquerors  for  the  use  and 
exploitation  of  the  conquered.  At  first  a  military 
system,  it  formulated  rules  of  procedure  for  the 
subjugated  that  in  time  became  law,  which,  origi- 
nally made  for  the  conquered,  after  considerable 
fusion  had  occurred,  came  to  be  applied  to  all 
members  of  the  resultant  society.  The  rigid  caste 
lines  which  at  first  existed  slowly  crumbled  as  the 
abler  members  of  the  captive  class  were  increas- 
ingly taken  into  the  business  of  the  ruling  class, 
and  became  overseers,  superintendents,  and  man- 
agers. Finally,  intermarriage  was  legalized,  and 
legal  miscegenation,  which  previously  took  place 
illicitly,  completed  the  physical  fusion.  The  cus- 
toms of  both  peoples  underwent  a  modification, 
new  customs  were  evolved,  and  institutions  of 
many  kinds  which  were  used  by  all  were  estab- 
lished. And  along  with  the  other  processes  which 
were  at  work  w-ent  the  gradual  genesis  of  loyalty 
to  the  "  fatherland,"  which  served  to  preserve 
the  state  against  dissolution  and  conquest. 

Closely  akin  to  the  conquest  theory  is  that  of 
Oppenheimer,  which  may  be  termed  the  exploita- 
tion theory.  The  chief  point  of  difference  be- 
tween the  two  theories  is  one  of  emphasis.  Ac- 
cording to  the  latter  theory,  the  state  arises  by  a 
process  of  conflict,  indeed,  but  it  is  a  one-sided 


28  Sociology 

conflict.  A  strong,  militant,  nomadic  people  pos- 
sesses the  lust  of  exploitation,  and  discovering  a 
peaceful  peasant  population,  it  invades  its  terri- 
tory, easily  conquers  it,  and  organizes  a  system 
under  which  the  subordinate  group  hands  over 
to  the  conqueror  the  larger  share  of  the  products 
of  its  labor.  A  system  is  developed  by  which  the 
conquerors  are  continuously  able  to  collect  the 
forced  tribute  from  the  conquered,  but  what  be- 
gins as  a  matter  of  forceful  compulsion  grows 
into  a  system  of  acquiescence,  and  what  was  pre- 
viously tribute  becomes  the  taxes  levied  by  a  rul- 
ing class.  Custom  and  tradition  arise  with  their 
powerful  sanctions  of  the  "established  order," 
and  the  shrewd  ruling  class  employ  all  available 
cultural  and  religious  agencies  to  inculcate  among 
the  subordinate  class  the  sanctity  and  inviolability 
of  that  order. 

Thus  the  system  of  continuous  exploitation 
which  the  conquerors  established  is  the  beginning 
of  the  state.  Its  motive  and  essence  is  the  ex- 
ploitation of  a  peaceful,  productive  class  by  an 
organized  militant  class,  and  this  initial  principle 
of  exploitation  of  one  class  by  another  largely, 
though  less  conspicuously,  obtains  in  all  modern 
states. 

While  these  theories  are  likely  to  give  a  rude 
shock  to  the  unsophisticated  and  traditional 
minds,  they  are  doubtless  true  in  their  essential 
characteristics.     However,   since  its  origin,  the 


Origin  of  Races  and  Institutions       29 

state  has  undergone  a  considerable  modification 
in  the  direction  of  becoming  more  responsive  to 
the  needs  of  all  classes.  By  reason  of  the  gradual 
diffusion  of  knowledge  and  intelligence  through 
all  of  the  strata  of  society,  the  state  has  passed 
out  of  the  exclusive  control  of  a  privileged  order 
and  has  assumed  a  multitude  of  functions  for  the 
common  good  which  were  previously  private  mat- 
ters. Thus  coinage  and  the  regulation  of  money, 
the  maintenance  of  armies,  the  levying  and  col- 
lection of  taxes,  the  exercise  of  the  judicial  func- 
tion, the  transportation  of  mail,  the  conducting 
of  an  educational  system,  and  the  control  of  land 
titles  are  some  of  the  more  important  duties 
which  all  modern  states  have  assumed.  And  it 
is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  masses  of  people 
have  come  to  regard  the  state  as  their  best  de- 
fense against  abuses,  and  to  expect  of  it  the  as- 
sumption of  all  duties  which  are  deemed  neces- 
sary to  the  common  good. 

Religion 

Religion,  popularly,  means  worship,  a  plan  of 
eternal  salvation,  and  often  morality.  But  viewed 
genetically  it  signifies  a  belief  in  the  existence  of 
superhuman  agencies  and  in  man's  ability  to  in- 
fluence or  control  them.  This  conception  of  re- 
ligion is  broad  enough  to  comprehend  the  central 
principle  of  all  religions  from  the  lowest  to  the 
highest. 


30  Sociology 

Religion  must  have  made  its  initial  appearance 
in  the  course  of  evolution  somewhere  between 
animals  and  existing  primitive  man,  since  the  for- 
mer do  not  and  the  latter  do  exhibit  religious 
phenomena.  It  could  not  have  originated  as  an 
instinct  because  instincts  are  biological  in  origin 
and  nature,  and  arise  as  bodily  reactions  for  the 
adjustment  of  the  organism  to  physical  condi- 
tions. As  such  they  are  transmitted  by  physical 
inheritance,  and  only  variations  of  structure  and 
function  useful  for  securing  food,  protection,  and 
maintenance  of  species  are  capable  of  perpetua- 
tion. To  say  that  religion  arose  as  a  "  perception 
of  the  infinite,"  or  as  an  "innate  idea,"  explains 
nothing,  since  the  former  resolves  itself  into  an 
instinct,  and  the  modern  psychology  has  amply 
disproved  the  possibility  of  innate  conceptions. 
Consequently,  like  other  ideas,  religion  must  have 
arisen  as  an  inference,  a  groping  of  the  primitive 
mind  for  an  explanation  of  phenomena  for  which 
it  had  no  scientific  apprehension  in  terms  of 
natural  cause  and  effect.  But  the  animal  mind 
knows  something  of  cause  and  effect,  and  the 
primitive  man's  mind  possessed  the  tendency  to 
assume  causes  for  phenomena.  Since  natural 
explanations  of  the  many  surrounding  mysteries 
were  impossible,  it  was  inevitable  and  logical  that 
supernatural  ones  should  have  appeared.  A  study 
of  primitive  peoples  makes  it  evident  that  the 
earliest   religious  conception   must  have  been  a 


Origin  of  Races  and  Institutions       31 

vague  dread  of  a  mysterious  something  which 
with  time  and  under  the  stress  of  crises  and 
social  conditions  became  differentiated  into  super- 
human personahties. 

A  casual  knowledge  of  primitive  life  is  suffi- 
cient to  indicate  that  primitive  society  was  satu- 
rated with  the  belief  in  superhuman  agencies,  and 
that  the  world  was  conceived  as  a  realm  of 
demons  and  spirits.  While  the  belief  in  spirits 
was  universal,  every  deity  was  ethnic  and  its 
power  was  circumscribed  by  the  confines  of  its 
believers.  Consequently,  the  adoption  of  an 
individual  into  another  group  necessitated  a 
change  of  deities,  and  the  rite  of  adoption  was 
one  of  accepting  the  gods  of  another  people.  But 
the  combining  and  enlarging  of  social  groups  by 
means  of  conflict  brought  a  consequent  elevation 
and  expansion  of  the  conquerors'  deities  and  an 
accompanying  depression  of  the  influence  of  those 
of  the  conquered.  By  means  of  this  process, 
some  gods  became  great  national  deities.  With 
the  expansion  of  knowledge  of  the  world  through 
tiie  mingling  of  races  and  the  growth  of  specu- 
lative imagination,  a  universal  deity  was  at  last 
conceived,  and  among  advanced  peoples  polythe- 
ism was  displaced  by  monotheism. 

Another  characteristic  of  the  evolution  of  re- 
ligion is  observed  in  the  growth  of  social  agents 
and  organizations.  At  the  very  outset  there 
could  have  been  no  religious  functionaries,  and 


32  Sociology 

every  man  was  his  own  mediator.  But  because 
some  men  were  adapted  to  dreaming  dreams  and 
seeing  visions,  special  religious  agents  arose.  The 
earliest  ones  were  in  the  nature  of  sorcerers  and 
conjurors,  because  at  that  time  all  spirits  were 
conceived  to  be  evil,  and  had  to  be  frightened 
away  or  outwitted.  Hence  the  medicine  men 
were  the  earliest  religious  agents,  and  their  chief 
work  was  to  drive  out  evil  demons  by  means  of 
beating,  creating  great  noises  and  stenches,  or  to 
counteract  their  influence  by  magic.  With  the 
rise  of  ancestor  worship,  however,  since,  while 
they  lived,  ancestors  exercised  beneficent  influ- 
ences, deities  were  conceived  as  more  kindly 
disposed.  As  a  consequence,  the  method  of  con- 
trolling superhuman  agencies  changed  to  the  use 
of  pacific  means.  Communal  sacrifice,  incense, 
and,  finally,  prayers  and  worship  became  the 
accepted  formulas. 

Whenever  religious  mediation,  the  control  of 
the  deities,  passed  into  the  hands  of  a  special 
class  of  men,  an  enormous  influence  over  society 
was  established.  The  religious  functionary  held 
the  keys  of  life  and  death,  of  disaster  and  for- 
tune, of  access  to  heaven  or  condemnation  to 
perdition.  As  a  consequence,  the  teachings  of 
religious  functionaries  brought  immediate  com- 
pliance, and  the  lives  of  men  and  the  social  order 
were  deeply  influenced.  Tabus,  restraints,  com- 
mands,   interdicts,    penances,    must    be    obeyed 


Origin  of  Races  and  Institutions       33 

under  penalty  of  offended  deity.  The  religious 
functionaries  maintained  a  closed  organization ; 
there  was  no  open  shop  or  opportunity  for  boy- 
cott, no  chance  of  appeal.  Because  of  this,  much 
cunning  and  craft  were  employed  by  medicine 
men  and  priesthoods  to  enrich  themselves  and  to 
further  the  influence  of  their  orders.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  well-disposed  and  beneficent  relig- 
ious order  could  do  much  to  promote  social 
well-being.  Not  only  might  it  stimulate  philan- 
thropic efforts,  but  at  times  seek  to  build  a  social 
democracy. 

A  further  tendency  in  religious  development 
has  been  toward  making  religion  more  ethical. 
In  so  far  as  the  earliest  religion  was  largely  a 
matter  of  individuals  it  possessed  no  ethical  im- 
port. But  when  it  became  an  organized  affair,  so 
that  it  affected  the  relations  of  men  to  one  an- 
other, it  possessed^  a  socio-ethical  basis.  While 
religion  has  always  been  dynamic  in  securing 
action  on  the  part  of  individuals,  its  tendency 
has  usually  been  one  of  conservation  rather  than 
one  of  progress.  Because  it  has,  until  recently, 
been  a  state  agency  and,  as  a  consequence,  an 
affair  of  ruling  classes,  it  has  been  obliged  to 
support  the  established  social  order.  Its  ethics, 
for  this  reason,  has  most  often  been  a  static  and 
conventional  one.  But  in  so  far  as  ecclesiasti- 
cism  has  been  broken  into  competitive  sects  and 
there  has  occurred  a  divorce  between  state  and 


34  Sociology 

church,  rehgion  has  shown  signs  of  teaching  a 
dynamic  ethics. 

The  Industrial  Order 

Like  the  state,  the  industrial  order  was  a  late 
social  arrival.  Initial  man  foraged  for  his  food 
and  wore  few  clothes.  Later,  after  the  inven- 
tion of  weapons  and  snares,  he  lived  on  game. 
Agriculture  crept  in  slowly  in  the  shape  of  hoe- 
culture,  supplementing  the  hunting  and  fishing. 
Wherever  pastoral  life  occurred,  wants  were 
satisfied  by  means  of  the  flocks. 

Consequently,  early  social  life  was  industrially 
undifferentiated.  The  industrial  order  emerged 
only  when  occuptional  divisions  of  labor  based  on 
sex-differences  were  replaced  by  those  of  func- 
tion. This  could  take  place  only  to  a  slight 
degree  in  small  pastoral  groups,  where  inequali- 
ties of  wealth  made  two  classes,  owners  and  hired 
herdsmen.  But  when  a  number  of  territorial 
groups  resulted  from  conflict,  a  varied  industrial 
differentiation  arose.  Not  only  did  subjugation 
introduce  a  slave  class,  but  plunder  accumulated 
wealth,  wants  multiplied,  and  the  workers  broke 
up  into  distinct  occupations.  Besides,  in  a  large 
territory,  localities  differed  in  products  ;  and  fields, 
forests,  and  mines  must  be  worked.  Further,  the 
raw  products  had  to  be  worked  up  into  consump- 
tive goods,  materials  be  transported  from  place 
to  place ;  traders  and  merchants  were  demanded. 


Origin  of  Races  and  Institutions        35 

Thus  emerged  the  systems  of  labor,  of  extractive 
industries,  of  transportation  and  of  exchange. 

The  growth  of  the  industrial  system  has  been 
conditioned  by  the  appearance  of  certain  mediat- 
ing agencies  or  connecting  factors. 

First,  it  has  rested  on  the  efficiency  of  the 
means  of  transporting  goods.  Roads  have  been 
a  necessity,  and  we  find  a  successive  series  of 
landways  coming  into  existence,  such  as  indi- 
vidual paths  between  neighboring  peoples,  trails 
for  large  bodies  of  moving  herds  and  peoples, 
ill-kept  roads,  highways,  and  turnpikes,  systems 
of  macadamized  roads,  railroads.  Accompanying 
this  development  has  been  a  parallel  series  of 
agencies  of  transportation :  men  as  burden  bear- 
ers, animals,  drags  attached  to  animals,  carts, 
wagons,  locomotives  and  cars.  In  like  manner, 
transporting  agents  used  on  water  have  evolved 
from  the  raft  and  dugout  to  sailboat,  steamboat, 
and  steamship. 

Second,  because  industry,  in  its  more  advanced 
stages  of  development,  is  carried  on  to  furnish 
goods  at  a  distance,  the  consequent  commerce 
has  depended  on  the  efficiency  of  the  exchange 
system.  The  earliest  method  of  exchange  was 
one  of  making  presents  with  the  expectation  of 
return  gifts.  Then  came  barter,  which  was 
cumbersome  and  inconvenient  because  it  was 
difficult  to  make  change.  Markets  and  market 
places  helped  to  simplify  this  by  bringing  into  one 


36  Sociology 

vicinity  a  great  assortment  of  articles  of  various 
grades  of  value.  Likewise,  the  adoption  of  some 
commodity,  such  as  a  quantity  of  wheat  or  a 
goat,  as  a  standard  of  value,  marked  a  step  in 
advance,  but  could  not  obviate  the  inconvenience 
of  making  change.  This  could  be  met  only  by 
the  creation  of  some  commodity  which  contained 
great  value  in  a  small  unit,  was  universally  desir- 
able, was  easily  worked  into  shape,  and  was 
durable.  The  precious  metals,  especially  gold, 
ofifered  such  a  medium,  and  coinage  established 
standards  and  variety  of  value.  Not  only  could 
money  facilitate  exchange  of  goods,  but  it  served 
as  a  great  spur  to  the  accumulation  of  wealth, 
because  it  made  possible  an  easy  conversion 
of  wealth  into  goods  to  satisfy  every  kind  of 
want. 

Third,  the  development  of  a  communication 
system  conditioned  industrial  development.  Since 
the  growth  of  a  transportation  system  also  accom- 
plished the  end  of  communication,  it  is  only 
needful  to  advert  to  later  phases  of  development. 
With  the  appearance  of  the  locomotive  and  rail- 
way, it  was  imperative  that  there  should  be  a 
swift  transmission  of  reports  of  the  movements 
of  trains.  This  came  with  the  invention  of  the 
telegraph,  but  this  invention  was  soon  adapted 
also  to  sending  market  reports  and  to  ordering 
and  reporting  goods.  Other  agents,  such  as  the 
telephone  and  wireless,  are  competing  systems. 


Origin  of  Races  and  Institutions        37 

and  it  is  evident  that  a  world  commerce  would  be 
impossible  without  these  lightning-like  servitors. 

A  treatment  of  the  industrial  system,  however 
brief,  should  make  some  allusion  to  developments 
which  have  occurred  in  the  status  of  labor,  in  the 
growth  of  productive  capital,  in  the  systems  of 
manufacture  and  production,  and  to  the  rise  of 
the  capitalistic  system  and  methods  of  organizing 
business.  But  as  the  briefest  outline  of  the 
changes  which  have  taken  place  in  society  in 
those  instances  is  obviously  impossible  for  this 
volume,  we  must  be  contented  with  their  mention. 

The  social  results  of  the  industrial  order  are 
obvious.  That  order  multiplied  wants,  put  a 
premium  on  accumulation  of  wealth  and  attain- 
ment of  power,  helped  discipline  a  labor  force, 
made  places  for  varying  talent,  in  connection 
with  the  state  established  class  distinctions,  and 
enormously  promoted  social  organization  and 
structure.  While  the  results  were  generally  bene- 
ficial, the  means  used  to  secure  the  establishment 
of  the  order  have  often  been  brutal,  though  in 
large  measure  inherent  in  the  age. 

TJic  Family 

By  means  of  the  family  the  race  is  continued 
and  society  made  possible.  Moreover,  the  family 
places  the  first  social  imprint  on  the  individual 
and  orientates  him  for  a  larger  collective  life. 
While  now  it  is  but  one  of  many  bridges  over 


rrsfy^^ 


38  Sociology 

which  the  past  moves  into  the  present,  originally 
it  was  the  only  one. 

In  the  historical  sense,  the  family  means  the 
association  of  offspring  and  one  or  both  parents 
during  a  greater  or  less  interval.  The  natural 
motives  for  creating  the  family  are  the  repro- 
ductive instincts  and  parental  love.  The  first 
secures  mating,  the  second  the  nourishing  and 
rearing  of  children.  Parental  love  is  differen- 
tiated into  maternal  love  and  paternal  love.  Of 
these,  the  former  is  by  far  the  older,  since  the 
constitution  of  the  female  among  higher  animals 
creates  a  durable  physiological  nexus  between  the 
mother  and  offspring,  and  imposes  on  the  latter 
a  period  of  dependence,  with  a  consequent  de- 
mand for  maternal  care.  The  function  of  the 
male,  up  to  the  later  stages  of  evolution,  consists 
in  fertilization,  and  beyond  this  he  sustains  no 
fostering  relations  to  the  young.  However, 
among  some  of  the  higher  mammals  and  birds, 
the  male  parent  bestows  upon  the  offspring  a 
fostering  attention,  and  in  a  real  sense  the  insti- 
tution of  marriage  begins. 

While  the  male  sometimes  protected  and  fed 
the  female  during  incubation  and  the  period  of 
childbirth,  among  the  higher  mammals  generally 
his  parental  contributions  were  few  and  short- 
lived, and  family  life  centered  about  the  maternal 
female.  It  was  hers  to  bear  the  young,  to  suckle 
and  protect  them,  and,  in  some  instances,  to  pro- 


Origin  of  Races  and  Institutions       39 

vide  food  for  them  and  to  teach  them  to  obtain 
it  for  themselves.  And  doubtless  this  repre- 
sented the  situation  among  the  earliest  human 
beings.  It  must  have  been  a  long  time  before  the 
male  parent  was  harnessed  into  the  family  life 
by  his  affections  and  by  custom,  and  thereby 
compelled  to  share  in  its  responsibilities.  If  by 
marriage  we  mean  a  somewhat  permanent  rela- 
tion between  mother  and  father,  it  may  be  said 
that  marriage  had  its  beginnings  among  animals 
but  that  it  was  not  greatly  developed  until  well 
along  in  the  course  of  human  evolution. 

With  regard  to  the  forms  of  marriage  there 
has  been  something  of  an  evolution.  It  is  not 
likely  that  humanity  has  passed  through  a  uni- 
versal stage  of  promiscuity,  though  in  some 
primitive  groups  there  are  indications  that  pres- 
ent sex  arrangements  presuppose  a  prior  promis- 
cuity. Nor  is  it  clear  that  either  of  the  forms  of 
marriage  —  monogamy,  polygamy,  and  polyan- 
dry—  held  the  field  exclusively  in  early  society 
and  that  the  consequent  development  evolved  the 
other  forms  in  a  regular  order.  Probably  all  of 
these  kinds  of  marriage,  and  group  marriage 
besides,  existed  side  by  side  in  the  beginning, 
with  conditions  placing  a  premium  on  polygamy 
and  group  marriage,  but  with  equality  in  the 
number  of  the  sexes  dominating  the  situation. 
The  evolution  of  marriage  consists  of  a  competi- 
tive strife  between  these  forms,  with  adaptability 


40  Sociology 

to  human  purposes  favoring  monogamy.  That 
form  of  marriage  realizes  sex  justice  by  giving 
every  man  and  woman  the  privileges  of  family 
life;  respects  the  principle  of  sex  jealousy  in 
both  men  and  women ;  is  most  favorable  to  the 
physical,  mental,  and  social  development  of  chil- 
dren; and  affords  the  best-defined  method  of 
tracing  lineage  and  transferring  property.  Be- 
cause of  these  and  other  characteristics,  mono- 
gamic  marriage  has  become  the  prevailing  form 
among  civilized  peoples. 

Monogamic  marriage  has  undergone  a  develop- 
ment in  the  direction  of  establishing  a  greater 
equality  between  husband  and  wife  and  in  accord- 
ing a  more  favorable  position  to  the  children. 
The  patriarchal  family  is  typical  of  ancient  family 
life  in  which  the  patriarch  was  absolute  over 
wives  and  children.  The  Roman  patriarchal 
family,  however,  was  monogamic,  but  the  father 
possessed  no  less  despotic  powers.  But  civiliza- 
tion has  reduced  the  authority  of  the  father, 
enlarged  the  functions  and  privileges  of  the 
mother,  and  placed  the  training  and  disciplining 
of  children  on  a  less  severe  and  more  ethical  basis. 
And  while  increasing  divorce  has  been  an  accom- 
paniment of  the  evolution  of  society  toward  a 
more  equitable  social  order  and  a  fairer  family 
institution,  it  is  to  be  viewed  as  a  temporary 
symptom  and  incidence  of  a  transitional  stage 
rather  than  as  inherent  in  democracy.    The  crea- 


Origin  of  Races  and  Institutions       41 

tion  of  higher  ideals  of  the  family  and  of  the 
marriage  relations  by  a  due  process  of  education 
may  be  expected  to  reduce  the  number  of  divorces 
and  to  place  the  family  on  a  more  wholesome 
footing. 

Education 

By  the  educational  institution  is  meant  the 
system  established  by  society  for  the  transmission 
of  the  principles  of  social  experience  from  gener- 
ation to  generation  for  the  purpose  of  equipping 
the  young  for  life.  Or  education  may  be  viewed 
as  a  direct  endeavor  to  socialize  developing  indi- 
viduals. While  at  present  there  are  many  agen- 
cies which  help  secure  the  equipping  of  the  young, 
education  is  to  be  regarded  as  the  most  explicit 
and  universal  scheme  of  socialization.  Only  a 
few  pointed  remarks  may  be  permitted. 

First,  during  social  evolution  organized  society 
has  made  an  increasingly  explicit  attempt  to  edu- 
cate the  young.  Before  the  state  arose,  primitive 
society  exercised  a  somewhat  implicit  educational 
function.  To  the  older  men  and  to  the  women 
was  given  the  task  of  teaching  the  boys  and  girls 
certain  of  their  duties.  The  knowledge  of  the 
larger  part  of  their  activities,  however,  was 
gained  by  imitation  and  experience.  After  the 
state  arose  and  social  classes  were  formed,  only 
the  favored  few  were  educated ;  the  masses, 
being  slaves,  were  trained  by  imitation  and  com- 


42  Sociology 

pulsion.  In  more  recent  times,  religious  sects 
undertook  to  educate  men  for  religious  functions, 
but  incidentally  opened  their  academic  courses  to 
all  men.  But  because  sectarian  teaching  formed 
too  narrow  a  foundation  for  social  activities 
generally,  and  also  was  possible  only  to  those 
fortune  had  favored,  the  state  was  impelled  to 
assume  universal  training  functions  and  explicitly 
to  create  a  citizenship. 

Second,  education  has  developed  away  from 
traditional  lore  chiefly  toward  bestowing  scientific 
principles.  A  large  portion  of  primitive  educa- 
tion consisted  of  embedding  in  the  minds  of  the 
young  the  folk-lore  and  myths  of  the  group.  In 
later  society,  education  was  a  class  affair  and 
consisted  of  transmitting  the  class  view  and  learn- 
ing, together  with  an  effort  to  build  up  linguistic 
powers  and  to  give  a  religious  interpretation  of 
the  world.  Nor  has  present  education  been 
emancipated  from  largely  dealing  in  traditional 
learning  and  in  promoting  the  remote.  However, 
the  theological  interpretation  of  the  world  has 
given  way  in  state  schools  to  the  teaching  of 
science,  and  there  is  a  growing  emphasis  of  the 
rational. 

Third,  in  recent  years  education  has  made  an 
attempt  to  recognize  the  complexity  of  society 
and  to  prepare  for  callings  as  well  as  for  life  in 
general.  The  view  that  education  is  only  cultural 
or  disciplinary  failed  to  recognize  that  society  has 


Origin  of  Races  and  Institutions       43 

grown  and  that  it  demands  many  diverse  func- 
tions. Such  a  view  was  suitable  for  a  narrow 
society  and  for  caste  purposes,  but  it  could  not 
meet  the  demands  of  present  conditions.  This 
could  be  done  only  by  recognizing  the  scientific 
and  technical  character  of  modern  society,  and 
by  establishing  varied  courses  to  train  for  the 
different  callings.  This  does  not  mean,  however, 
that  a  larger  interpretation  of  the  world  and  of 
life  is  denied  or  that  the  common  principles  of 
citizenship  are  withheld. 

Society  has  also  evolved  means  for  continuing 
the  education  of  the  individual  after  he  has  be- 
come adult.  By  means  of  newspapers,  books, 
periodicals,  chautauquas,  lyceums,  university  and 
college  extension,  and  cultural  associations  of 
many  kinds  it  seeks  to  supplement  the  field  of 
experience.  If  we  view  all  cultural  processes  as 
education,  it  is  manifest  that  practically  all  of  the 
great  societal  interests  with  which  this  chapter 
deals  exert  a  greater  or  less  influence  in  the 
direction  of  furthering  information  and  thought. 

For  the  sake  of  the  casual  reader,  it  may  be 
well  to  indicate  that  while  certain  great  lines  of 
social  development  have  been  sketched  as  if  they 
originated  and  evolved  somewhat  independently 
of  each  other,  in  reality  such  has  not  been  the 
case.  Society  has  always  existed  as  a  unit,  and 
all  structures  and  interests  have  originated  and 
grown  together.     The  several  structures  did  not 


44  Sociology 

spring  up  apart  from  each  other,  but  originated 
as  functions  of  the  community  Hfe  as  a  whole. 
While  at  times  there  has  been  need  of  bringing 
some  social  structure  into  completer  harmony 
with  the  type  of  the  given  society  to  which  it 
belongs,  this  necessity  has  not  arisen  because 
that  structure  grew  up  apart  from  the  society 
and  required  to  be  brought  into  the  community 
of  institutions,  but  because  it  has  suffered  a 
divergence  from  the  aim  and  spirit  of  the  larger 
community,  rendering  it  imperative  that  it  should 
be  socialized. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE    NATURE    OF   SOCIAL   EVOLUTION 

THE  conception  has  long  been  in  the  minds 
of  thoughtful  men  that  human  society  under- 
goes a  development.  Thus  Plato  believed  that 
government  had  a  regular  series  of  stages  through 
which  it  moved,  returning  in  cyclical  fashion  to 
its  initial  form,  from  which  it  set  out  anew  to 
repeat  its  round.  Vico  taught  that  society  passed 
through  successive  phases  of  development  and 
then  deteriorated  by  going  back  to  the  initial 
stage,  to  begin  the  process  of  development  anew. 
Written  works  on  history  have  been  an  expres- 
sion of  the  idea  that  nations  and  states  come  into 
existence  by  degress  and  pass  out  to  give  way  to 
stronger  ones. 

Evolution  as  Quantitative  Transformation 

The  commoner  thougiit  of  evolution  is  that  it 
is  a  growth.  Plants  and  animals  grow.  Things 
appear  which  formerly  had  no  existence  in  the 
forms  they  assume.  To  the  popular  mind  this 
chiefly  means  a  quantitative  increase.  Thus  sand 
hills  grow  as  the  particles  of  flint  are  gathered 
up  by  the  wind  and  piled  up  in  one  heap.  The 
crystal  develops  as  the  elements  are  arranged  in 

45 


46  Sociology 

geometrical  lines  and  figures  so  that  they  repre- 
sent a  larger  mass.  The  seed  placed  in  the  soil 
germinates,  sends  its  rootlets  into  the  soil,  where 
they  expand  into  a  system  of  sustention,  and 
shoots  its  stem  into  the  air,  where  it  branches  and 
leafs,  growing  but  a  season  or  through  many 
years  and  centuries.  So  much  is  visible  to  the 
eyes  of  all. 

Society  likewise  undergoes  a  quantitative  trans- 
formation. Beginning  as  a  pair  of  primitive 
beings  just  emerged  above  the  plane  of  brute 
existence,  there  has  been  a  series  of  successive 
reproductive  events,  with  a  consequent  multipli- 
cation of  human  beings  until  the  original  pair  is 
represented  by  approximately  1,600,000,000  indi- 
viduals. Not  all  of  these  persons  are  welded 
together  into  one  society.  Some  day  they  will  be. 
Then  there  will  be  a  world-society  which  was 
evolved  from  an  original  family.  But  we  have 
only  to  consult  the  statistics  of  our  nation,  our 
state,  or  our  city  to  get  the  visible  facts  of  growth. 
Thus  our  nation  has  grown  from  about  4,000,000 
people  in  1790  to  over  100,000,000  inhabitants 
now.  The  cities  of  the  nation  grew  in  population 
1 1 ,826,000  between  1900  and  19 10. 

As  Qualitatire  Transformation 

Further  reflection  indicates  that  besides  quan- 
titative increase  evolution  represents  qualitative 
changes.     The  plant  is  dififerent  from  the  seed 


The  Nature  of  Social  Evolution        47 

from  which  it  sprang,  the  chick  from  its  parent 
tgg,  and  the  crystal  from  the  particles  which 
were  organized  into  it.  Some  principle  of  organ- 
ization has  been  presiding  in  the  process  of 
enlargement.  Substances  gathered  from  the  soil 
by  the  roots  of  the  plant  have  undoubtedly  in 
some  way  organized  into  the  enlarging  structure, 
so  causing  the  enlargement.  But  the  material 
assembled  in  this  manner  from  the  soil  and 
atmosphere  is  altogether  different  in  character 
from  the  material  previous  to  the  segregation. 
There  has  been  a  vitalizing  process,  and  matter 
which  formerly  was  called  inorganic  has  been 
converted  into  matter  which  is  termed  organic. 
When  the  organism  is  done  with  it,  it  may  again 
pass  into  the  inorganic  form ;  but  so  long  as  it 
performs  its  function  in  and  for  the  organism, 
it  is  vital,  living.  However  life  began,  it  has  the 
power  of  bestowing  its  peculiar  characteristics  on 
the  material  it  requires  to  build  itself  up. 

While  not  to  the  same  degree  that  obtains  in 
organic  life,  there  is  a  vitalizing  process  going 
on  in  the  development  of  society.  The  original 
social  plasm  has  passed  down  its  socializing  tend- 
ency and  imprint,  and,  as  a  consequence,  every 
human  being  is  worked  upon  during  his  growth 
and  impressed  with  a  collective  characteristic. 
While  some  of  the  societal  qualities  are  inborn, 
such  as  the  love  of  companionship,  others  are 
transmitted  in  the  social  environment.    Intelligent 


48  Sociology 

sympathy,  appreciation,  altruism,  cooperative  de- 
sire and  ability,  social  vision,  are  some  of  them. 
As  a  consequence,  a  family,  a  neighborhood,  a 
state,  a  nation,  or  a  party  is  more  and  something 
different  than  the  mere  sum  of  the  individuals 
which  statistically  constitute  them.  The  constit- 
uent individuals  have  been  merged  in  a  sympa- 
thetic organic  structure  which  exists  as  a  con- 
tinuous articulated  system  in  much  the  same 
manner  as  do  the  particles  which  have  been  built 
into  the  plant. 

As  Diversification 

Another  characteristic  is  peculiar  to  growth 
and  evolution.  This  is  diversification,  or  differ- 
entiation. If  the  plant  is  different  from  the 
constituent  elements  out  of  which  it  is  produced, 
a  part  of  the  difference  arises  by  reason  of 
diverging  forms.  In  one  sense,  differentiation  is 
in  the  nature  of  an  expansion,  since  by  this 
means  enlargement  is  provided  for.  The  mate- 
rial represented  in  a  plant  could  be  collected  in 
the  fashion  a  snowball  is  built,  but  it  would  not 
serve  the  function  of  a  plant.  Differentiation 
means  essentially  that  growth  is  expressing  itself 
in  the  direction  of  new  structures  and  functions. 
The  germ  in  the  egg  works  upon  the  albumen 
and  constructs  of  it  bone,  muscle,  blood  vessels 
and  heart,  blood,  nerves,  skin,  feathers,  and  all 
the  many  parts  that  constitute  the  chicken.  Matter 


The  Nature  of  Social  Evolution       49 

has  taken  many  new  forms,  and  each  form  has  a 
function  to  perform,  not  for  itself,  but  for  the 
whole  organism  to  which  it  pertains. 

Social  evolution  has  witnessed  a  similar  diversi- 
fication of  parts  as  communities  and  groups  have 
enlarged  their  numbers  of  inhabitants.  The  early 
human  group  was  a  most  simple  affair,  as  simple 
in  its  structure  in  comparison  with  modern  society 
as  is  the  egg  when  compared  with  the  subsequent 
chick.  But  greatly  increased  numbers,  wealth, 
tastes,  and  wants  demanded  that  many  kinds  of 
organizations  should  exist  in  order  that  the  vary- 
ing activities  might  be  carried  out.  Consequently, 
many  varieties  of  divisions  of  labor  arose  to  meet 
these  demands.  Keeping  house,  farming,  stock- 
raising,  mining,  manufacturing  in  its  many 
phases,  marketing  goods,  transporting  them, 
preaching,  teaching,  acting,  serving  in  govern- 
mental capacities,  singing,  painting,  sculpturing, 
are  some  of  the  important  responses  to  enlarging 
demands. 

As  Integration 

And  as  was  said  above,  all  of  these  functional 
organizations  were  welded  into  a  whole  as  fast 
as  they  came  into  existence.  This  followed  from 
the  fact  that  every  special  function  was  not  car- 
ried on  for  itself,  but  i)ccause  the  larger  com- 
munity demanded  it.  When  the  larger  society 
came  into  being,  every  farmer,  merchant,  teacher, 


50  Sociology 

or  official  was  a  community  servant  or  server. 
The  teacher  did  not  teach  himself,  or  the  preacher 
preach  to  himself,  or  the  official  administer  for 
himself,  since  their  duties  were  for  the  whole 
community  or  group  in  which  their  services  were 
involved.  As  a  consequence,  as  fast  as  differen- 
tiation of  structures  and  functions  were  worked 
out  they  were  integrated  into  a  vital  unity. 

As  Accommodation 

Evolution  also  involves  adaptation  and  accom- 
modation. It  is  well  known  that  the  forms  of 
plant  and  animal  life  have  come  as  the  result  of 
a  long  series  of  accommodations  of  plants  and 
animals  to  the  physical  conditions  in  which  they 
lived.  Our  corn  plant  is  changing  its  character- 
istics as  it  migrates  into  the  colder  regions  and 
shorter  seasons  of  the  north.  When  men  go  to 
dwell  in  tropical  regions  their  blood  undergoes  a 
change  to  meet  the  new  demands  the  climate 
makes  upon  the  organism.  Upon  exposure  to 
constantly  changing  conditions,  organisms  must 
either  readjust  themselves,  at  first  functionally 
and  then  structurally,  or  be  eliminated. 

Not  only  has  man  accommodated  himself  to 
conditions  as  an  individual,  but  also  in  his  col- 
lective capacity.  The  different  methods  men  use 
in  meeting  the  different  climates  of  the  world  is 
an  illustration  of  the  general  fact.  Philippine 
and  Japanese  houses  are  distinctly  dissimilar  to 


The  Nature  of  Social  Evolution        51 

the  habitations  of  the  men  of  the  inclement  re- 
gions of  Europe  and  America.  Communities 
living  in  regions  of  drought  betray  different 
reactions  to  nature  than  those  inhabiting  districts 
of  abundant  precipitation.  It  was  previously 
seen  that  states  and  nations  go  through  qualifying 
processes  in  their  effort  to  accommodate  them- 
selves to  nature,  and  especially  to  the  situations 
made  by  the  characteristics  of  surrounding 
peoples.  It  is  also  true  that  societies  change 
in  their  response  to  the  necessities  of  adjusting 
their  structural  parts  to  each  other  as  necessity 
and  occasions  arise.  A  society  that  could  not  so 
accommodate  itself  would  stand  a  poor  chance 
of  survival.  Especially  in  the  face  of  strong 
competition  from  other  groups,  adaptation  is  a 
prime  requisite  of  group  safety. 

Social  and  Biological  Evolution 

Societal  evolution  resembles  and  differs  from 
other  forms  of  evolution,  more  pertinently  bio- 
logical evolution.  Biological  evolution  has  taken 
place  chiefly  by  way  of  physical  processes, 
though  in  the  higher  stages  the  mental  and 
societal  have  had  considerable  influence.  Varia- 
tion, heredity,  selection  —  these  three  processes 
realizing  the  method  of  adjustment  to  the  phys- 
ical environment  —  have  constituted  the  steps  in 
the  stairway  by  which  plant  and  animal  forms 
have  made  the  ascent.     Variation  and  heredity 


52  Sociology 

are  agencies  which  are  entirely  contained  within 
the  sphere  of  the  organic  processes ;  the  natural 
conditions  favoring  and  penalizing  the  varieties 
of  the  organic  species  as  they  arise  is  the  selective 
factor,  and  the  outcome  observed  in  the  survival 
of  particular  organisms  is  the  adaptation  or 
adjustment.  That  variation  taking  place  by 
means  of  heredity  which  fits  into  environing 
conditions  is  said  to  be  adjusted. 

When  society  begins,  the  process  of  evolution 
is  modified.  The  brain  that  has  been  evolving 
all  through  the  ages  and,  in  an  increasing  man- 
ner, becoming  an  agent  of  adaptation  to  the 
environment,  at  last  becomes  the  salient  agent  in 
development.  While  variation,  heredity,  and 
natural  selection  are  still  operative  and  act  as 
conditioning  factors  of  evolution,  the  determina- 
tions of  the  mental  agent  constitute  the  central 
and  immediate  factors  of  decision  and  adapta- 
tion. While  biological  evolution  was  unconscious, 
in  that  no  organism  involved  in  the  process  fore- 
saw or  ordained  an  objective,  societal  evolution 
increasingly  comprehends  foresighted  direction, 
although  its  initial  stage  was  dominated  by  the 
establishment  of  customary  ways  of  realizing 
collective  action.  Thus  it  is  seen  that  societal 
variation  and  heredity  are  substituted  for  biolog- 
ical variation  and  heredity,  as  the  more  directly 
active  agents,  that  the  social  environment  increas- 
ingly displaces  the  physical  environment  as  the 


The  Nature  of  Social  Evolution        53 

medium  to  which  social  forms  are  adjusted,  and 
that  the  intellectual  interests  become  the  active 
agents  of  adaptation. 


CHAPTER  V 

FACTORS    WHICH    DETERMINE    SOCIAL 
EVOLUTION 

DARWIN  and  other  colaborers  in  the  bio- 
logical field  have  amply  proved  there  has 
been  a  successive  development  of  organic  forms, 
plant  and  animal.  Spencer  quite  as  successfully 
demonstrated  the  occurrence  of  a  larger  cosmical 
evolution.  That  human  society  participates  in 
the  general  scheme  of  development,  only  the 
ignorant  can  doubt.  It  is  therefore  in  place  to 
review  the  factors  which  have  promoted  and 
moulded  this  societal  unfolding. 

TJic  Physical  Enznronment 

Man,  like  all  other  organic  beings,  is  and 
always  has  been  dependent  on  the  physical  condi- 
tions which  surround  him.  He  can  no  more 
escape  the  influence  of  these  factors  than  he  can 
transport  himself  bodily  to  a  life  on  some  other 
planet.  His  life  and  all  his  activities  are  en- 
meshed and  articulated  with  the  forces  and 
conditions  which  constitute  the  physical  uni- 
verse. The  associated  life  of  man  likewise  par- 
takes of  this  relation  of  dependence.  Collective 
existence  has  only  a  slightly  greater  power  to 

54 


Factors  Determining  Social  Evolution  55 

modify  the  physical  conditions  which  obtain 
than  has  the  individual.  Without  seeking  to 
estimate  the  exact  force  of  each  one  of  the 
physical  conditions  which  have  an  influence  in 
shaping  society,  something  may  be  said  of 
them. 

What  is  termed  climate  has  exerted  a  deter- 
mining influence  on  collective  life.  Temperature, 
rainfall,  humidity,  air-velocity,  occurrence  of 
storms,  sunshine  and  cloud,  make  up  climate. 
All  or  most  of  these  factors  decide  the  amount 
and  quality  of  plant  and  animal  life  which  is 
available  for  food.  Primitive  man,  especially, 
was  greatly  affected  by  temperature.  Before  the 
advent  of  artificial  dwellings,  clothing,  and  fire, 
men  were  forced  to  inhabit  the  warmer  portions 
of  the  earth.  The  early  societies,  and  even  civili- 
zation itself,  courted  the  torrid,  and  the  warmer 
portions  of  the  temperate,  zones.  Only  after 
clothing,  fire,  and  artificial  dwellings  were  dis- 
covered could  the  far  north  or  south  be  invaded. 
With  all  our  modern  facilities  for  living,  the 
great  bulk  of  the  population  of  the  earth  occupies 
the  temperate  portions  of  the  globe. 

Topography,  or  configuration  of  the  earth's 
surface,  has  an  influence  on  man's  distribution. 
The  high  altitudes  and  the  mountainous  regions 
have  relatively  few  inhabitants.  The  lowlands 
and  the  plateaus  are  the  homes  of  the  masses  of 
people.     Low  temperature  goes  with  very  high 


56  Sociology 

altitudes,  and  rough  countries  make  communi- 
cation difficult. 

Closely  associated  with  climate  and  topography 
is  fertility  of  the  soil.  Inherently,  an  arid  or  a 
cold  region  may  be  exceedingly  fertile,  but  the 
dearth  of  moisture  or  the  low  temperature  pre- 
vents a  large  production  of  available  food.  The 
arid  regions  of  the  United  States  are  particularly 
rich  in  soil  properties,  but  they  are  unavailable 
for  agriculture  until  an  artificial  supply  of  water 
is  provided.  The  northern  portions  of  Canada 
have  as  rich  soils  as  are  to  be  found,  yet  the 
short  seasons  give  opportunity  for  few  plants  to 
develop.  The  lowlands  are  the  homes  of  man- 
kind because  they  have  fertile  soils,  sufficient 
precipitation  to  insure  crops,  and  generally  lie  in 
temperate  zones.  Like  physical  bodies  in  motion, 
society  most  commonly  follows  the  line  of  least 
resistance,  and  as  a  consequence  associations  of 
men  and  civilization  have  established  themselves 
where  obtaining  a  livelihood  was  easiest. 

The  existence  of  an  abundance  of  animals  and 
plants  have  had  much  to  do  with  the  establish- 
ment of  human  associations.  They  afford  the 
food  supply  and  much  of  the  materials  for  manu- 
facture which  the  human  race  has  utilized.  Like 
human  beings,  they  thrive  best  where  climate  and 
topography  are  favorable.  Consequently,  their 
supply  coincides  with  the  lowland  regions  of  the 
temperate  and  torrid  zones.     Animals  have  af- 


Factors  Determining  Social  Evolution  57 

forded  tlie  motor  power  wliich  has  been  so  long 
used  by  mankind  and  which  has  been  a  necessary 
factor  in  social  evolution.  Only  recently  have 
mechanical  motors  taken  the  place  of  the  horse, 
camel,  ox,  and  other  draught  and  burden- 
bearing  animals.  Perhaps  the  fact  that  the 
Americas  had  so  few  useful  animals  for  domes- 
tication had  something  to  do  with  the  backward- 
ness of  social  evolution  on  those  continents  prior 
to  the  coming  of  the  whites.  In  the  case  of  primi- 
tive societies,  the  presence  of  many  fierce  animals, 
poisonous  reptiles,  and  dangerous  insects  may 
greatly  hinder  the  development  of  collective  life. 
The  presence  of  pestilential  swamps,  the  occur- 
rence of  earthquakes  and  volcanoes,  and  of 
violent  storms,  have  likewise  been  modifying 
circumstances. 

Inherent  Impulses  and  Desires 

The  external  factors  which  we  have  just  re- 
viewed could  not  alone  account  for  collective  or 
individual  activities  any  more  than  could  the 
atmosphere,  the  gun,  and  the  bullet  explain  the 
speed  of  the  projectile.  An  inner  motor  force 
is  a  necessary  provision  in  each  case.  The  im- 
pulses and  desires  are  the  motor  forces  in  the 
case  of  men  and  society.  Without  them,  nothing 
would  occur.  Plant  and  animal  growth  may  take 
place  by  means  of  metabolism,  but  the  compli- 
cated movements  of  animals  and  men  are  depend- 


58  Sociology 

ent  on  new  factors  —  instincts  and  wants.  On 
the  basis  of  their  inherited  instincts,  human  beings 
develop  desires  and  wants  which  entice  and  drive 
them  into  complex  activities  and  cause  them  to 
enter  into  cooperation  and  conflict  with  other 
men.  These  wants  and  desires  are  the  so-called 
"  social  forces." 

Several  transformations  have  taken  place  in 
human  desires  which  have  had  a  large  bearing  on 
collective  life. 

First,  there  has  been  an  expansion  or  diversifi- 
cation. As  compared  with  the  few  wants  of 
animals  of  the  higher  type,  human  beings  present 
an  army  of  appetites  and  desires.  The  lowest 
type  of  present  primitive  men  are  satisfied  with 
a  small  variety  of  articles  and  experiences.  The 
wants  of  civilized  man  are  as  the  sands  of  the 
sea  in  number.  The  names  of  all  the  consump- 
tion articles  which  are  produced  for  use  would 
be  but  a  partial  list  of  the  desires  of  mankind, 
or  at  least  an  indication  of  the  differentiation  the 
original  stock  of  desires  has  undergone.  In  one 
way  civilization  may  be  said  to  be  the  expression 
of  the  wants,  and  its  measure  to  be  indicated  by 
their  expansion.  In  another  way  its  complexity 
is  the  product  of  the  diversification  which  has 
occurred.  Reduce  human  desires  to  a  half-dozen, 
and  civilization  vanishes,  the  complicated  social 
structure  crumbles. 

Second,  desires  and  wants  have  been  standard- 


Factors  Determining  Social  Evolution  59 

ized  and  rendered  persistent.  As  in  the  case  of 
diversification,  this  has  taken  place  very  grad- 
ually. Early  man  was  persistent  in  satisfying  his 
wants  somewhat  spasmodically.  He  went  after 
food  when  he  was  hungry,  and  was  inactive 
between  times.  Modern  men  are  active  day  by 
day.  Only  by  this  means  are  they  able  to  satisfy 
their  multitude  of  desires.  Because  wants  have 
been  standardized,  there  is  no  chance  of  let-up  on 
work.  The  standard  set  by  the  community  or 
by  the  set  to  which  the  individual  belongs  de- 
crees that  activity  shall  be  persistent.  Thus  desires 
and  wants  have  become  communityized,  social- 
ized. Each  new  standard  set  is  not  easily  lost. 
Society  goes  to  successively  higher  standards. 

Third,  there  has  been  an  intensification  of  the 
higher  forms  of  desire.  Primitive  desires  con- 
cerned themselves  with  material  and  physical 
things.  Gradually  the  intellectual,  the  ethical,  the 
esthetic,  and  other  higher  desires  entered.  With 
continued  evolution  these  gained  strength,  until 
in  recent  times  large  numbers  of  people  possess 
them  in  strong  measure.  Their  reflex  influence 
on  society  has  been  beneficial.  The  more  the 
intellectual  activities  have  entered,  the  greater  has 
been  the  conquest  of  nature  on  the  part  of  society, 
the  more  frequent  have  been  the  discoveries 
which  have  promoted  life,  and  the  more  elabo- 
rate and  perfected  the  organized  collective  agen- 
cies by  which  results  could  be  attained.     Con- 


6o  Sociology 

tinued  social  evolution  is  assured  only  by  making 
the  intellectual  factor  of  constantly  greater  de- 
pendence on  the  part  of  the  masses  of  persons. 
In  consequence  of  development,  the  esthetic  and 
intellectual  factors  have  received  a  larger  ma- 
turity, and  have  come  to  the  position  of  existing 
as  ends  rather  than  as  means.  A  constantly 
larger  number  of  persons  who  labor  for  their 
support  devote  a  larger  portion  of  leisure  to 
intellectual  and  esthetic  enjoyment. 

Race  Stock 

It  is  affirmed  by  ethnologists,  anthropologists, 
and  other  scientists  that  race  has  a  considerable 
bearing  on  social  evolution.  To  what  degree  it 
is  an  influential  factor  has  not  been  determined 
accurately.  Thus  it  is  stated  that  some  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  Negro  race  are  truly 
hereditary  and  peculiar  to  that  people  as  a  sepa- 
rate race.  But  in  studying  the  position  of  the 
Negroes  in  the  United  States  it  is  not  easy  to 
determine  how  much  of  the  so-called  race  char- 
acteristics are  not  the  product  of  the  conditions 
under  which  the  Negroes  have  lived.  We  find 
that,  even  in  northern  communities,  where  the 
Negro  is,  theoretically,  supposed  to  be  given  the 
largest  opportunities  and  to  be  socially  equal  to 
the  whites,  this  is  not  the  case.  Race  prejudice 
operates  against  them  constantly,  they  are 
crowded    into    the   most    backward    districts    of 


Factors  Determining  Social  Evolution  6i 

cities,  and  permitted  to  pursue  only  the  most 
menial  occupations.  Further,  their  women  are 
usually  considered  the  legitimate  prey  of  un- 
scrupulous whites.  Recently  emerging  out  of 
slavery,  having  never  had  equal  opportunities  in 
education  and  culture  with  the  whites,  it  is  unsafe 
to  pronounce  any  particular  quality  which  they 
manifest  the  entire  result  of  racial  or  biological 
inheritance. 

At  the  present  time  there  is  a  growing  school 
of  scientific  students  of  anthropology  and  of 
social  evolution  generally  that  holds  that  the 
psychical  differences  the  diiYerent  groups  of 
peoples  and  the  various  grades  of  society  pre- 
sent are  more  the  result  of  the  special  social 
conditions  in  each  case  than  of  inherent  consti- 
tution. It  is  believed  that  the  bodily  and  brain 
structure  of  men  have  changed  little  since  very 
remote  times  in  the  evolution  of  the  race.  This 
means  that  the  potency  of  mind  is  ever  present 
to  manifest  itself,  given  the  suitable  conditions. 
As  a  consequence,  it  follows  that  the  backward 
races,  if  placed  under  civilized  conditions  in  such 
manner  that  those  influences  could  stimulate  and 
mould  the  individuals  of  those  races  from  earliest 
infancy  as  they  do  the  young  of  the  advanced 
races,  would  make  a  response  which  would  be 
fairly  comparable  to  those  of  civilized  men. 

Without  dogmatizing  concerning  the  previous 
statement,  it  may  be  held,  with  fairness,  that  if 


62  Sociology 

we  consider  a  race  as  comprising  both  the  heredi- 
tary and  cultural  features  of  a  given  people,  the 
statement  that  race  is  a  determining  factor  in 
social  evolution  is  undoubtedly  true.  In  remov- 
ing a  group  of  individuals  from  a  people  pre- 
senting backward  characteristics,  into  the  midst 
of  a  more  highly  developed  people,  both  the 
physical  and  cultural,  or  folkway,  factors  operate 
toward  the  manifestation  of  results  quite  distinct 
from  those  shown  by  the  inferior.  These  are 
doubtless  the  important  factors  relative  to  race  in 
its  bearing  on  social  evolution.  A  people,  dis- 
tinguished by  backwardness,  develop  their  social 
life  but  slowly;  whereas  a  people,  advanced  in 
culture,  find  little  difficulty,  as  compared  with  the 
former,  in  making  changes  for  the  better. 

Stage  of  Culture 

That  the  stage  of  culture  a  given  society  occu- 
pies has  much  to  do  with  its  power  of  develop- 
ment, needs  little  exposition  in  the  light  of  what 
has  just  been  said  and  of  what  is  commonly 
known.  It  is  a  determining  factor  in  two  re- 
spects at  least,  namely,  of  the  rate  at  which 
change  is  made  and  of  the  direction  or  kind  of 
transformation.  By  culture,  it  will  be  under- 
stood, is  meant  the  entire  social  content  of  a 
given  stage  of  social  evolution ;  that  is,  ideas  of 
every  kind,  modes  of  organization  and  of  adjust- 


Factors  Determining  Social  Evolution  63 

ment,  customs,  conventions,  occupational  activi- 
ties, beliefs,  educational  devices,  and  so  on. 

To  perceive  the  force  of  the  cultural  stage  of 
development  on  the  power  or  rate  of  change,  it 
is  sufficient  to  compare  the  lowest  type  we  know, 
such  as  the  Fuegians,  with  an  advanced  type, 
such  as  the  New  Zealand.  The  former  people 
has  only  a  slight  development ;  its  cultural  con- 
tent is  very  meager.  It  has  undoubtedly  occupied 
about  the  same  stage  of  advancement  for  thou- 
sands of  years  with  scarcely  perceptible  change. 
Left  to  itself,  many  thousands  of  years  must 
elapse  before  it  could  grow  into  civilization.  The 
New  Zealanders,  on  the  other  hand,  are  a  young 
people.  But  in  a  few  generations  they  have 
established  and  wrought  out  one  of  the  most 
advanced  and  well-adjusted  societies  extant.  The 
ease  and  celerity  with  which  they  undertake  and 
carry  through  transforming  enterprises  is  in 
striking  contrast  with  the  sluggishness  of  the 
Fuegians. 

The  direction  or  kind  of  changes  which  lower 
and  higher  groups  introduce  are  markedly  differ- 
ent. In  the  case  of  the  former  such  changes  are 
likely  to  pertain  to  incidental  matters,  to  affect 
but  a  narrow  range  of  interests,  and  to  be  con- 
ducted for  the  benefit  of  a  privileged  few.  The 
higher  a  society  is  developed,  the  greater  is  the 
tendency  to  undertake  the  reconstruction  in 
fundamental  matters,  to  project  transformations 


64  Sociology 

which  are  general  in  nature,  and  to  bring  about 
changes  which  promote  the  welfare  of  the  masses 
of  the  citizenship. 

Nature  of  External  Social  Groups 

External  and  neighboring  social  groups  are 
influential  factors  in  determining  the  course  of 
development  of  any  given  society.  According  to 
Oppenheimer  and  other  European  sociologists, 
the  state  arose  out  of  the  exploitation  of  one 
group  by  a  neighboring  group.  The  group  most 
susceptible  of  this  exploitation  was  one  made  up 
of  peasants.  They  were  sedentary,  occupied  with 
cultivating  the  soil,  unarmed,  and  peaceably  dis- 
posed. A  pastoral  people  were  likely  to  be  the 
exploiters.  They  were  roving,  could  move  expe- 
ditiously by  horse,  bore  arms,  and  craved  the 
enjoyment  of  other  men's  labor  power.  In  each 
case  the  life  of  each  society  was  changed.  The 
existence  of  the  peasant  society,  as  a  society, 
might  be  ended;  that  of  the  pastoral  society  was 
influenced  in  the  direction  of  a  ruling,  tribute- 
gathering,  militant  class. 

In  the  case  of  advanced  nations,  contact  with 
other  groups  changes  the  course  of  a  nation's 
development  in  many  ways.  With  favorable  con- 
ditions great  industries  may  be  developed,  as  in 
the  case  of  England ;  extensive  agricultural  pro- 
duction be  engaged  in  for  the  markets  of  the 
world,  as  in  the  United  States  until  recently;  or 


Factors  Dctcnnining  Social  Evolution  65 

some  other  line  of  interest  promoted.  The  mili- 
tant attitude  of  surrounding  groups,  or  even  of 
one  powerful  neighbor,  leads  an  accessible  nation 
in  the  direction  of  militancy.  European  nations 
have  stimulated  each  other  and  are  now  influenc- 
ing America  to  maintain  larger  armies,  to  main- 
tain greater  fleets,  and  to  create  more  powerful 
armaments  than  would  have  been  the  case  had 
all  those  nations  followed  pacific  aims.  In  turn 
this  preparation  for  war  has  modified  govern- 
ment, education,  manufacture,  and  the  aspirations 
of  the  various  peoples. 

By  presenting  limitations  to  the  dispersion  of 
populations  and  to  the  expansion  of  any  given 
people,  external  groups  serve  to  throw  the  nation 
back  upon  itself,  to  develop  its  own  resources 
more  extensively,  and  frequently  to  tempt  it  to  a 
trial  of  supremacy.  The  intensiveness  of  the  life 
of  the  German  people  during  recent  decades  has 
come  about  largely  because  of  the  pressure  of 
surrounding  nations.  This  has  helped  to  arouse 
a  vigorous  national  consciousness,  and  to  set  to 
work  agencies  for  emancipation  from  the  sup- 
posed encroachment  and  dominance  of  other 
peoples. 


CHAPTER  VI 


THE   NATURE  OF  SOCIETY 


LIKE  a  great  many  other  conceptions,  that  of 
society  has  been  a  growth.  From  the  time 
of  Plato  and  Aristotle  the  idea  has  been  develop- 
ing and  refining.  The  essential  characteristic  of 
human  society  has  become  pretty  well  defined. 
In  this  brief  chapter  we  will  seek  to  portray  it. 

Older  Conceptions 

As  a  means  of  arriving  at  the  true  nature  of 
society,  a  consideration  of  two  conceptions  which 
have  been  held  will  be  useful.  One  of  these  is 
the  notable  "  social  contract  "  theory.  This  theory 
probably  originated  with  Locke,  the  English  phi- 
losopher, passed  over  to  France  with  Rousseau, 
was  brilliantly  developed  by  him,  helped  lay  the 
basis  of  the  philosophy  of  the  French  Revolution, 
and  was  incorporated  into  the  political  philosophy 
of  the  United  States  by  Thomas  JefTerson  in  the 
Declaration  of  Independence.  Of  all  political 
theories,  it  has  doubtless  exerted  the  profound- 
est  effects,  largely  because  it  is  a  juristic  theory, 
deals  with  persons  as  legal  entities,  and  is  readily 
made  intelligible. 

To  facilitate  exposition,  Rousseau  conceived  of 
66 


The  Nature  of  Society  67 

men  as  living  apart  in  a  state  of  nature,  pos- 
sessed of  natural  rights.  For  purposes  of  con^ 
venience,  they  entered  into  a  contract  with  each 
other  to  form  society.  By  this  contract  they 
gave  up  certain  of  their  rights  to  the  collectivity, 
reserving  others  to  themselves.  Through  this 
their  common  interests  were  promoted  and  the 
life  of  individuals  was  enhanced.  Thus  society 
was  formed  by  contract,  or  a  joint-partnership 
agreement. 

Although  this  theory  is  untrue,  because  society 
came  by  slow  evolution,  because  the  individual  is 
conceived  apart  from  society,  and  because  many 
social  phenomena  are  not  covered  by  it,  the  idea 
has  its  value.  It  does  emphasize  the  psychical 
character  of  society.  Association  was  accomplished 
by  direct  conscious  eflfort.  Men  formed  an  alli- 
ance because  it  would  be  advantageous.  We 
now  observe,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  that  many 
modern  organizations  are  formed  as  conscious 
undertakings. 

The  "  organic  concept "  is  a  later  theory  to 
account  for  the  nature  of  society.  Herbert 
Spencer  has  made  this  idea  familiar  among 
English-speaking  peoples.  A  considerable  part 
of  his  Principles  of  Sociology  is  devoted  to  draw- 
ing analogies  between  society  and  biological 
organisms.  While  he  did  this  to  emphasize  the 
organic  nature  of  society,  he  distinctly  points  out 
that   the   latter  is   dissimilar   in   several    funda- 


68  Sociology 

mental  points  to  animal  organisms.  Yet  under 
such  powerful  teaching  sociology  for  a  long  time 
was  inclined  to  describe  society  as  if  it  were  a 
biological  fact. 

In  a  large  and  true  sense  society  is  an  organ- 
ism, just  as  is  the  universe,  the  solar  system,  a 
system  of  thought,  or  a  locomotive.  In  this 
larger,  philosophical  meaning  anything  is  an 
organism  which  possesses  a  unity  dependent  on 
the  interdependent  cooperation  of  all  the  parts 
in  the  production  of  its  movements  and  func- 
tions. Thus  the  function  of  the  watch  is  to  keep 
time,  and  this  function  is  the  product  of  all  the 
parts  of  the  watch  working  together.  The  func- 
tion of  a  human  body  is  to  maintain  life,  and  this 
object  is  attained  by  means  of  the  cooperative 
activity  of  the  interrelated  organs  of  the  body. 
Since  society  is  an  association  of  individuals, 
who  get  along  together  by  working  for  results 
through  the  numerous  social  organizations,  it 
possesses  a  similar  interdependence  of  function- 
ing parts  and  an  organic  unity. 

The  chief  criticism  of  the  organic  concept  is 
that  it  has  been  so  used  as  to  obscure  some  of 
the  more  important  features  of  society.  If 
society  were  an  organism  in  the  sense  that  a 
tree  or  an  animal  are  organisms,  then  human 
beings  would  be  as  fast  and  fixed  in  the  meshes 
of  the  parts  and  organs  as  are  the  cells  in  those 
structures.     Consequently,    human    intervention 


The  Nature  of  Society  69 

could  have  little  or  no  effect  in  directing  col- 
lective affairs.  We  would  be  bound  in  a  mecha- 
nism which  works  automatically  and  unsympa- 
thetically.  If  this  were  the  truth,  we,  of  course, 
should  accept  it.  But  the  teachings  of  sociolo- 
gists since  the  time  of  Spencer  and  Lilienfeld 
have  minimized  the  relative  importance  of  the 
biological  characteristics,  and  have  properly  em- 
phasized the  psychical  qualities  of  social  organi- 
zations and  interactions.  A  mere  mention  of 
two  or  three  prominent  theories  which  have  been 
developed  during  the  past  twenty-five  years  will 
serve  to  show  this. 

Theories  Expressing  the  Psychical  Nature 
of  Society 

A  notable  theory  is  that  of  the  late  Lester  F. 
Ward.  It  may  be  called  the  "  achievement " 
theory,  because  in  Ward's  conception  society 
consists  of  achievements.  Achievements  are  in- 
tellectual products  —  devices,  ways,  means  of 
getting  things  done.  Machines,  books,  laws, 
social  organizations  and  institutions,  sciences, 
mathematical  systems,  etc.,  are  achievements. 
Before  the  time  of  such  agencies  there  was  no 
society.  Society  arose  with  their  appearance  and 
has  developed  in  proportion  to  their  increase. 
Since  achievements  are  the  ideas  or  principles 
which  are  implicit  in  machines,  institutions,  and 
the    like    (but    are    not    the    material    or    visible 


70  Sociology 

structures),  and  since  they  afford  cooperative 
avenues  for  the  larger  life  of  men,  they,  rather 
than  men  or  institutions  visible,  constitute 
society.  If  this  is  so,  then  society  is  a  psychical, 
immaterial,  system.  Society,  therefore,  accord- 
ing to  this  theory,  consists  of  the  principles  which 
represent  these  intellectual  products  as  they  re- 
side in  the  minds  of  men.  The  continuity  of 
society  is  then  dependent  on  the  perpetual  trans- 
fer of  these  ideas  from  generation  to  generation. 
Human  beings  are  necessary  to  this  system  only 
in  the  sense  that  achievements  are  created  in  or 
conserved  by  the  minds  of  men. 

The  "  imitation  "  theory  is  another  interesting 
and  important  sociological  theory.  Tarde  in 
France  and  Baldwin  in  America  have  been  the 
leading  exponents  of  the  imitation  concept.  For 
sociological  purposes,  imitation  may  be  stated  as 
the  inborn  psychical  tendency  of  human  beings 
to  follow  the  example  of  others.  Animals  do 
this  generally,  monkeys  are  adepts  at  it,  the  word 
"aping"  was  derived  from  the  actions  of  apes, 
and,  consequently,  man  came  by  imitation  natu- 
rally. The  child  begins  to  follow  suggestions 
quite  early  in  its  career.  It  learns  first  by  follow- 
ing the  examples  of  its  immediate  family,  then 
of  those  of  the  neighborhood,  later  takes  sug- 
gestions from  or  imitates  the  ideas  of  others  in 
school,  and  thus  evolves  to  a  grasp  of  the  larger 
world.     All  of  the  earlier  life  of  the  individual 


The  Nature  of  Society  71 

is  made  up  of  imitation.  Actual,  original  crea- 
tion is  nil.  Only  a  few  able  individuals  ever 
develop  creative  power  and  introduce  variation 
into  the  social  world.  Most  individuals  absorb 
the  copies  set  by  others  without  modification. 
Consequently,  the  new  generation  becomes  like 
the  old,  all  the  men  of  a  community  come  to  hold 
essentially  the  same  ideas,  beliefs,  and  customs, 
and  society  is  continuous,  because  the  parents 
and  elders  transfer  their  ideas  to  the  children  and 
youth.  Since  what  is  thus  handed  down  consists 
of  ideas  and  ideas  of  ways  to  do  things,  it  is 
obvious  that,  according  to  this  theory,  society  is  a 
psychological  fact. 

A  third  influential  theory  is  the  "interest" 
theory.  This  is  held  by  Ratzenhofer  of  Germany 
and  by  Small  of  America.  According  to  this 
conception  we  see  men  in  primitive  times  develop- 
ing a  variety  of  wants.  The  farther  they  develop, 
the  more  wants  they  have.  Each  want  calls  out 
an  interest  in  getting  the  want  supplied.  Organi- 
zations or  social  structures  to  get  these  interests 
realized  arise.  Men  of  like  interests  group  to- 
gether more  or  less  permanently.  Organizations 
appear  as  fast  as  distinct  interests  evolve.  Grow- 
ing, multiplying  interests  and  wants  ordain  an 
expanding  and  more  enduring  social  structure. 
In  so  far  as  men  of  one  group  or  structure  want 
something  which  the  men  of  another  or  other 
groups    desire,    conflict    arises.     The    stronger 


/- 


Sociology 


groups  obtain  what  they  want  by  subordinating 
other  groups  to  themselves.  By  this  means  we 
have  the  appearance  of  classes  and  castes.  The 
larger  society,  in  the  form  of  the  state,  which, 
as  we  saw,  arose  as  an  exploiting  agency,  seeks 
to  reconcile  the  interests  of  the  antithetical 
groups.  Of  course,  the  customs  and  traditions 
of  each  group  are  factors  to  support  the  interests 
of  the  given  groups.  In  so  far  as  there  is  custom 
and  tradition  which  is  common  to  all  the  groups 
constituting  the  larger  society,  such  as  a  nation, 
these  are  reconciling  agencies. 

Again  we  have  a  theory  that  has  psychological 
import.  Wants  and  interests  are  psychical  affairs. 
The  organizations  and  agencies  instituted  for 
their  satisfaction  are  also  products  of  the  mental 
faculties,  and  are  consequently  of  a  psychical 
nature.  Social  continuity  is  provided  for  in  the 
transfer  of  interests  as  permanent  group  assets 
from  generation  to  generation.  Cooperation 
among  persons  of  like  interests  is  a  group  amal- 
gam, and  frequently  an  inter-group  bond,  since 
members  of  different  groups  may  differ  about 
one  matter  and  agree  on  many. 

Conclusion 

Other  interesting  theories  exist,  such  as  the 
"  folkway  "  theory  of  the  late  Professor  Sumner, 
Giddings'  theory  of  "consciousness  of  kind," 
the  "  synthetic  "  theory  of  Ellwood,  the  "  social 


Tlic  Nature  of  Society  jt^ 

control"  idea  of  Ross,  and  others.  All  of 
them  agree  with  the  former  theories  in  be- 
ing psychological  in  nature.  It  may  be  defi- 
nitely stated,  in  view  of  present  sociological 
theories  as  to  the  nature  of  society,  that  human 
society  is  to  be  viewed  as  a  system  of  men  who 
are  bound  together  by  psychical  bonds,  and  who 
function  together  by  means  of  psychological 
organizations.  Men's  bodies  do  not  constitute 
society,  although  they  are  essential  conditions  for 
its  existence  and  furnish  primary  reasons  why  it 
does  exist.  A  sleeping  army  would  not  be  a 
society  or  a  social  group.  It  would  not  be  an 
organization ;  only  so  many  sleeping  individuals. 
Let  the  bugles  blow  and  the  drums  beat  the 
signal  of  alarm  or  attack,  the  army  becomes  con- 
scious, takes  on  organization,  moves  as  a  cor- 
porate entity.  The  organizing,  synthesizing  factor 
is  the  presence  of  conscious  awareness  and  pur- 
posiveness.  Instead  of  the  army,  suppose  as 
many  men  who  happened  to  wander  to  the  same 
place  and  to  lie  asleep.  Now,  should  an  alarm 
be  sounded,  in  place  of  organized  movement 
there  is  consternation  and  bewildered  flight.  The 
minds  of  the  men  there  may  be  as  able  as  those 
of  the  soldiers,  but  they  have  no  plan.  Each 
individual  is  a  unit  and  acts  on  his  individual 
impulse.  Instead  of  concerted  movement  there 
is  pandemonium  and  interference.  Thus  the 
organization  we  know  as  an  army  is  a  coopera- 


74  Sociology 

tive  undertaking  and  discipline,  the  condition  of 
which  is  the  habit  of  mind  and  knowledge  of 
proper  technical  operations  that  are  embedded 
in  the  minds  of  all  constituent  members.  The 
army  as  organization,  as  a  social  fact,  is  the 
psychic  factor. 

What  is  true  of  the  illustration  just  used  is 
equally  true  of  any  other  organization  or  asso- 
ciational  event.  While  people  are  necessary  for 
the  existence  of  society,  it  is  possible  that  under 
certain  conditions  people  may  exist  and  there  be 
no  society.  Let  all  the  persons  of  a  city  or  a 
state  be  in  a  condition  of  coma  at  one  time,  and  city 
or  state  as  a  social  fact  does  not  exist.  Even  in 
the  matter  of  custom  and  convention,  which  ap- 
pear to  carry  themselves  forward,  the  conscious 
element  is  demanded.  To  eat  with  fork  rather 
than  with  knife,  to  wear  an  evening  suit  after 
six  in  the  evening  instead  of  before  dinner,  or 
to  leave  two  cards  for  the  gentlemen  and  one 
for  the  lady  caller,  are  items,  the  correct  execu- 
tion of  which  depends  on  mental  alertness  and 
comprehension  of  a  plan  of  action.  If  it  is  said 
that  it  is  the  emotional  element  that  unifies  man- 
kind and  binds  men  together,  in  the  first  place 
it  is  to  be  remembered  that  emotions  are  psy- 
chical, and,  in  the  second,  that  unless  emotions 
are  guided  by  ideas  they  are  blind.  Again,  such 
conditions  as  physical  environment  and  economic 
situations  operate  to  secure  unity  among  men 


772^  Nature  of  Society  75 

and  cooperative  action  only  as  they  are  appre- 
hended by  the  minds  of  the  individuals  concerned. 
Their  significance  must  be  recognized  or  they  are 
impotent. 


CHAPTER  VII 


THE  SOCIAL  ORDER 


SOCIAL  phenomena  and  human  associations 
have  an  arrangement  which  it  is  proper  to 
term  the  social  order.  Social  order  and  social 
organization  are  closely  synonymous  phrases. 
What  is  meant  is  that  there  is  an  established 
relationship  in  the  arrangement  of  institutions, 
customs,  beliefs,  ideas,  modes  of  procedure,  and 
all  else  that  makes  up  the  content  of  society.  The 
existing  relationships  are  regular,  persistent,  and 
definite  to  that  degree  which  is  in  harmony  with 
the  nature  of  an  aggregate  that  is  constituted  of 
volitional  elements  such  as  human  beings. 

Evidence  of  a  Social  Order 

Occasionally  there  is  a  doubting  Thomas  who 
questions  the  existence  of  a  societal  order,  at 
least  to  the  extent  that  it  is  a  realm  of  law  and 
principles.  The  doubt  is  usually  fathered  by  the 
thought  that  an  established  order  which  is  the 
domain  of  law  contradicts  the  assumption  that 
men  are  free  moral  agents.  Therefore  such  an 
order  does  not  exist.  Similarly,  hundreds  of 
years  ago,  the  heliocentric  theory  of  the  planetary 
system  was  scouted  as  inconsistent  with  the  testi- 

76 


llic  Social  Order  yy 

mony  of  the  senses  and  the  Bible.  Consequently, 
such  a  theory  was  pilloried  and  executed.  But 
the  treatment  did  not  change  the  truth  which  is 
now  commonly  accepted.  The  theory  of  evolu- 
tion has  received  like  treatment,  but  modern 
science  has  builded  its  structure  on  the  founda- 
tions of  that  theory.  To  discard  evolution  is  to 
reject  the  fruitful  part  of  science. 

The  intelligent  man  needs  no  proof  of  the 
existence  of  an  established  order  of  human  asso- 
ciations. The  everyday  man  takes  it  for  granted, 
and  the  question  of  its  existence  does  not  arise 
in  his  mind.  But  for  those  who  require  proof,  as 
well  as  for  scientific  reasons,  some  evidences  may 
be  suggested. 

First,  all  men  act  as  if  they  believed  in  such  a 
system.  They  initiate  courses  of  action  which 
cover  years  to  execute,  make  business  ventures 
which  depend  on  the  regular  occurrence  of 
events,  anticipate  future  conditions  in  many 
ways,  and  in  general  bank  on  the  continuance  of 
things  just  about  as  they  are.  Since  they  do  this 
because  the  experience  of  previous  men  and  of 
their  own,  the  proof  is  of  a  high  order  of 
competence. 

Second,  our  knowledge  of  human  nature  makes 
us  treat  men  as  if  we  believed  that  they  act  regu- 
larly and  according  to  system.  Men  have  written 
treatises  on  "  the  moral  order  of  the  world  "  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  they  believed  in  freedom  of 


78  Sociology 

the  will.  Archbishop  Whately  wrote  that  we  stead- 
fastly believe  that  men  will  do  so  and  so  accord- 
ing to  their  character,  and  that  in  case  they  fail 
to  do  as  we  anticipated,  we  lay  it,  not  to  the  lack 
of  order  in  men's  actions,  but  to  our  deficiency  of 
knowledge  of  their  character. 

Third,  a  great  array  of  statistical  facts  proves 
that  human  events  occur  according  to  system. 
We  estimate  populations  of  cities  and  states  for 
some  years  ahead  and  find  that  the  estimates  are 
approximately  true.  Even  volitional  matters  like 
marriage  and  divorce  occur  with  great  regularity. 
It  can  be  predicted  with  a  large  degree  of  cer- 
tainty what  per  cent  of  persons  of  any  given-age 
group  in  the  United  States  will  be  married  ten 
years  hence.  Actuaries  make  life  tables,  and 
insurance  is  written  on  their  basis.  For  given 
nations  the  divorce  rate  can  be  safely  estimated 
in  advance.  Taking  into  account  the  incomes  of 
a  group,  it  can  be  foretold  what  per  cent  of  the 
income  will  be  spent  for  clothing,  light  and  heat, 
food,  house  rent,  medicine,  investment,  etc. 

Causes  of  the  Order 

Conceding  that  there  is  a  social  order,  we  may 
ask  what  has  produced  it.  First,  that  which  is 
really  external  to  society,  but  which  is  the  great 
moulding  influence,  the  uniformity  of  physical 
conditions  and  processes,  profoundly  makes  for 
order.     Men  have  to  adjust  themselves  to  nature 


The  Social  Order  79 

according  to  the  prescriptions  imposed  by  nature. 
Fortunately  for  men,  nature  is  very  dependable. 
She  seldom  does  the  unexpected.  When  she  does 
indulge  in  eccentricities,  such  as  furnishing 
earthquakes,  tornadoes,  and  droughts,  the  human 
order  is  disturbed.  The  climates  of  the  respective 
zones  and  areas  do  not  change  perceptibly,  sea- 
sons occur  with  almost  perfect  regularity,  pre- 
cipitation is  dependable,  the  nature  of  plants  and 
animals  together  with  their  responses  are  fixed. 
Consequently,  collective  man  has  built  his  social 
order  to  fit  the  functioning  of  nature,  and  much 
of  the  steadfastness  of  that  order  is  due  to  the 
uniformity  in  natural  phenomena. 

Second,  as  was  suggested  above,  human  nature 
contains  factors  which  make  for  uniformity.  The 
more  influential  ones  are  instincts,  habits,  and 
ideals  of  action.  Man,  in  common  with  animals, 
is  fitted  up  with  an  automatic  equipment  which 
primarily  accounts  for  much  of  his  conduct.  All 
of  the  early  activities  of  the  child  are  the  out- 
come of  instincts.  The  foundations  of  the  whole 
emotional  life  are  instinctive.  Hunger,  love, 
anger,  revenge,  jealousy,  sympathy,  fear,  the 
manifestations  of  which  possess  an  intense  emo- 
tional tone,  are  the  roots  of  the  larger  portion  of 
social  action.  Given  the  conditions,  and  most  of 
these  instincts  operate  immediately.  All  of  them 
may  be  modified  and  checked  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree.     Hunger,  and  love  of  the  sexual  kind, 


8o  Sociology 

occur  at  stated  intervals  or  at  a  given  period  of 
the  individual's  development.  Now  the  fact  that 
all  men  have  them,  and  that  they  act  sponta- 
neously under  appropriate  conditions,  serves  to 
create  uniformity  of  action  among  men  who  are 
in  contact. 

Habits  are  the  near  cousins  of  instincts.  But 
they  are  formed  during  the  individual's  lifetime, 
while  instincts  are  innate.  Instincts  have  been 
moulded,  for  most  part,  by  the  physical  condi- 
tions which  have  surrounded  animal  life.  Habits 
also  arise  in  response  to  those  factors,  but  the 
social  conditions  which  surround  individuals  dur- 
ing the  more  advanced  stages  of  society  play  a 
larger  part  in  their  production.  In  so  far  as 
men  live  under  similar  conditions  they  develop 
like  habits  and  habitual  modes  of  response.  And 
considering  the  facts  of  uniformity  of  nature,  of 
instinctive  modes  of  response,  and  of  the  asso- 
ciational  life  which  has  developed  as  a  conse- 
quence, it  is  seen  that  there  is  a  large  similarity 
in  the  various  situations  in  which  individuals  are 
reared.  As  a  consequence,  the  responses  which 
are  made  as  men  carry  on  the  collective  life  are 
largely  of  one  pattern.  Hence  arise  the  folk- 
ways, or  customs,  the  conventions,  bodies  of  be- 
lief, systems  of  teaching  and  of  science,  methods 
of  carrying  on  the  work  of  the  world,  and  all 
the  other  agencies  of  relating  individuals  and  of 
securing  cooperation.     It  eventuates  that  in  any 


The  Social  Order  8i 

given  period  of  a  community's  life  these  habitual 
responses  organize  themselves  into  a  social  order 
which  is  as  stable  and  regular  as  is  human  nature. 

Third,  ideals  for  community  life  likewise  bring 
about  a  solidarity.  This  may  not  be  true  in  their 
initial  stage,  but  it  obtains  when  such  ideals 
become  widely  accepted.  It  is  true  that  in  a 
static  society  these  ideals  possess  a  characteristic 
akin  to  the  habitual.  But  in  a  changing  society 
they  point  toward  such  a  transformation  that 
society  will  be  bettered.  When  these  ideals  have 
become  generally  accepted  they  operate  to  move 
society  forward  gradually  toward  a  new  stage  of 
development.  But  because  the  change  is  a  grad- 
ual one,  the  characteristics  of  order  and  system 
are  maintained  during  the  transformations  which 
ensue.  A  progressive  society  is  one  in  which 
such  changes  constantly  occur  under  the  influ- 
ence of  ideals,  and  the  social  order  is  a  moving 
yet  stable  order. 

Fourth,  social  order  is  partly  determined  by 
existing  methods  of  social  control.  These  methods 
are  either  conscious  or  unconscious,  relative  to 
the  outcome.  All  of  the  cultural  activities,  in 
so  far  as  they  have  a  bearing  on  the  social 
system,  either  disturb  or  the  more  firmly  estab- 
lish the  order  which  is  in  vogue.  Since  most 
of  those  activities  are  conventional,  they  serve 
to  retain  rather  than  change  the  prevailing  sys- 
tem.    Certain  agitations  and  teachings  are  in- 


82  Sociology 

tended  to  have  a  reformatory  effect  on  society. 
Carried  on  by  considerable  groups  or  parties, 
they  are  conscious  attempts  at  effecting  change. 
Historically,  the  most  considerable  of  the  con- 
scious attempts  to  maintain  the  social  order  at 
any  given  time  have  been  made  by  ruling  classes. 
Before  the  French  Revolution  the  "two  estates" 
constituted  a  ruling  order  in  France  which  was  a 
class-conscious  regime.  Practically  all  of  the 
greater  nations  of  Europe  have  such  classes  who 
seek  to  maintain  the  established  order.  Perhaps 
a  growing  number  of  citizens  of  the  United 
States  believe  this  nation  is  dominated  by  the 
wealthy  classes  acting  together  somewhat  con- 
sciously. In  all  these  cases  the  ruling  classes 
desire  that  the  social  and  economic  arrangements 
which  obtain  and  which  are  favorable  to  their 
interests  shall  not  be  disturbed.  Having  great 
influence,  they  are  able  to  prevent  a  rapid  or  de- 
cided transformation  of  the  order  they  sanction. 

Social  Organization  and  Social  Order 

By  some,  the  phrase  "social  organization"  is 
meant  to  imply  vv'hat  has  above  been  covered 
by  the  social  order.  By  others  it  is  thought  of 
rather  as  pertaining  to  the  system  of  articulating 
the  larger  and  more  active  interests  of  society. 
We  may  think  of  it  here  as  the  social  order  made 
more  explicit. 

When  we  think  of  society  somewhat  explicitly, 


The  Social  Order  83 

we  find  that  it  largely  consists  of  structural 
organizations  which  are  somehow  bound  into  a 
great  whole,  and  that  each  of  those  structures 
represents  an  important  interest  which  it  is  its 
business  to  realize.  Some  of  the  more  important 
interests  about  which  organizations  have  grown 
were  indicated  and  outlined  in  Chapter  11. 

The  more  thoughtful  men  are,  the  more  they 
see  that  society  is  a  definite  organization  of 
structures  whose  function  is  the  realization  of 
their  respective  interests.  Looking  back  on  the 
evolution  of  society,  it  is  apparent  that  the 
interests  are  the  parents  of  the  structures.  That 
does  not  mean  that  the  functions  arose  before 
the  organizations,  but  that  the  wants  or  vision 
of  new  demands  made  themselves  felt  and  the 
new  structures  were  developed  to  meet  those 
wants.  As  rapidly  as  the  organization  was 
evolved  the  function  was  performed.  This 
sequence  constantly  recurs.  Men  are  discover- 
ing new  needs  and.  consequently,  creating  the 
social  agencies  by  which  they  may  be  met.  Thus, 
recently,  people  have  come  to  believe  that  com- 
munity recreation  is  desirable,  and  many  commu- 
nities are  establishing  agencies  known  as  play- 
ground or  recreation  centers. 

It  might  be  supposed  that  since  these  interests 
grew  up  together  there  is  no  problem  of  recon- 
ciliation and  coordination.  Society  consists  of 
the  balancing  of  all  of  these  interests,  but  the 


84  Sociology 

act  of  balancing  is  not  without  conflict  and  dis- 
turbance. It  cannot  be  assumed  that  just  because 
they  do  make  up  a  totality,  an  integral  society, 
the  whole  moves  forward  or  rests  with  entire 
peace  within  the  collective  structure.  Conflict 
of  interests  in  society  is  almost  as  common  as 
concord.  Capital  against  labor,  peace  against 
militarism,  religious  sect  against  sect,  political 
party  against  political  party,  labor  group  against 
labor  group,  business  against  business,  and  com- 
munity jealousies  and  divisions  are  a  few  of  the 
symptoms  of  the  warring  of  interests. 

One  of  the  great  reconciling  forces  exists  in 
the  fact  that  each  man  represents  several  inter- 
ests. He  has  political,  religious,  educational, 
recreational,  domestic,  and  all  the  other  interests. 
Consequently,  he  is  bound  up  with  others  who 
have  like  diversity  of  interests.  On  some  of 
these  interests  individuals  agree,  and  on  some 
disagree.  A  man  cooperates  with  his  neighbor 
in  some  directions,  opposes  him  in  others.  His 
neighbor  and  all  other  citizens  are  situated  in 
like  manner.  Hence  society  cannot  fall  apart  in 
sections. 

In  the  long  run  the  more  powerful  interests 
prevail,  and  society  is  the  resultant  of  the  most 
powerful  forces  of  the  period.  At  one  time  the 
ecclesiastical  organization  was  the  dominating 
agency,  but  it  has  fallen  into  the  background. 
The  modern  state  is  the  great  regulating  agency 


The  Social  Order  85 

of  all  the  forceful  interests.  Every  serious  prob- 
lem must  ultimately  be  acted  upon  and  settled  by 
the  state.  The  state  itself  is  an  agency  which 
is  influenced  by  the  powerful  interests.  The 
stronger  interests  place  their  representatives  in 
power  and  gain  a  preponderating  voice  in  the 
decision  of  matters. 

Changing  the  Social  Order 

If  social  evolution  and  progress  have  occurred, 
and  no  one  can  doubt  that,  at  least,  evolution  of 
society  has  taken  place,  it  is  inevitable  that  the 
social  order  must  have  undergone  a  transforma- 
tion. It  is  needless,  therefore,  to  discuss  the 
possibility  of  such  a  change.  Also,  the  discus- 
sion thus  far  has  suggested  the  causes  of  social 
changes  in  general.  Without  seeking  to  be  ex- 
haustive, certain  methods  of  changing  the  social 
order  may  be  mentioned  briefly. 

Advancement  in  culture  in  its  educative  sense 
must  have  a  profound  influence.  New  discoveries 
in  all  fields  of  efifort,  mechanical  inventions  which 
influence  all  phases  of  life,  the  improvement  of 
social  devices  of  all  kinds,  are  the  result  of  the 
heightening  of  culture.  In  their  turn  they  stimu- 
late and  produce  transformations  in  the  various 
organizations  and  in  their  articulation  into  a 
social  whole.  Changes  in  society  which  are  due 
to  heightening  culture  most  frequently  take  place 
quietly.     But  they  may  sometimes  work  them- 


86  Sociology 

selves  out  in  a  brief  time.  In  this  case  they  are 
catastrophic  and  are  termed  social  revolutions. 
By  the  peaceful  method  social  structures  are 
changed  gradually  and  the  totality  is  little  dis- 
turbed. By  the  revolutionary  method  some  of 
the  structures  are  eliminated  or  badly  shattered. 
As  a  consequence,  the  society  goes  through  a 
period  of  reconstruction  in  a  more  or  less  crip- 
pled condition.  The  old  structures  may  be 
brought  in  later,  or  new  ones  built  to  replace 
them.  The  French  Revolution  changed  the  polit- 
ical structure  of  the  French  nation  fundamen- 
tally, and  introduced  transformations  in  other 
directions.  The  Industrial  Revolution  substi- 
tuted new  producing  agencies,  which  in  turn 
brought  about  swift  changes  in  social  conditions 
generally. 

After  fundamental  changes  have  been  intro- 
duced and  society  has  righted  itself,  the  new 
comes  to  be  accepted  as  the  established  scheme 
of  life,  and  a  "new  social  order"  is  said  to 
exist.  All  phases  of  life  become  conventional- 
ized after  men  follow  the  same  methods  of 
reaction  for  a  time,  and  custom,  with  its  petrify- 
ing grip,  settles  down  upon  the  societal  processes. 
When  once  accustomed  to  the  changed  regime, 
men's  minds  become  fixed  by  habit  and  resent 
suggestions  of  readjustment  in  the  order,  just  as 
was  done  in  the  case  of  the  previous  order. 

It  is  sometimes  stated  that  the  economic  fac- 


The  Social  Order  87 

tors  are  more  responsible  for  introducing  changes 
in  the  social  order  than  are  other  agencies.  No 
doubt,  in  a  general  sense,  this  is  correct.  But 
the  final  analysis  indicates  that  economic  factors, 
in  the  proper  meaning,  are  themselves  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  scientific  insight  and  largeness  of 
vision  which  are  the  outcome  of  the  general  cul- 
tural system.  The  ultimate  factors  of  change  in 
society,  therefore,  are  the  intellectual  desires 
which  seek  to  bring  new  truths  to  light.  The 
men  who  are  devoted  to  science  in  the  quest  of 
truth  are  the  real  motive  forces  of  social  trans- 
formation. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


THE   SOCIAL    MIND 


IN  the  literature  of  sociology,  and  sometimes 
in  current  writings  of  an  intellectual  cast, 
certain  expressions  are  met  which  suggest  the 
psychical  characteristics  of  society.  The  "social 
mind,"  "  social  consciousness,"  "  public  opinion," 
and  "  public  will  "  are  examples.  These  phrases 
do  not  connote  exactly  the  same  meaning,  in- 
deed, but  they  do  suggest  a  collective  psychical 
solidarity.  While  the  whole  of  society  is  psy- 
chical and  all  of  its  phenomena  must  be  regarded 
as  psychical  manifestations,  it  is  necessary  to 
consider  society  under  certain  of  its  aspects  as 
the  social  mind. 

What  It  Is 

To  the  average  individual  the  social  mind  mani- 
fests itself  through  the  medium  of  his  awareness 
of  or  sensitiveness  to  a  comprehensive,  envelop- 
ing publicity.  Nothing  very  definite  or  tangible 
appears  to  impinge,  but  "What  they  will  say?" 
has  the  note  of  decided  reality.  The  sentiment 
of  the  community  concerning  the  proposed  action, 
the  public  opinion  it  may  arouse,  the  moral  sense 
it  may  evoke,  are  factors  which  every  normal 


The  Social  Mind  89 

person  respects,  although  their  exact  scientific 
nature  may  never  have  been  suspected  by  him. 
It  is  the  respect  for  and  fear  of  the  pubHc  mind 
which  keeps  most  of  us  good. 

The  social  mind  sometimes  manifests  itself  in 
a  spectacular  manner  as  a  symptom  of  mob- 
mindedness.  At  times,  indeed,  a  mob  forms 
deliberately,  with  little  excitement,  but  com- 
monly it  is  a  spontaneous,  emotional  affair  and 
individuals  are  swept  into  its  vortex  by  a  strong 
wave  of  feeling.  Under  those  conditions  the 
critical  faculties  are  passive,  the  habit  and  ability 
to  judge  of  the  morality  and  expediency  of  the 
course  of  action  sink  into  abeyance,  and  the 
members  of  the  active  group  are  dominated  by 
the  collective  mind. 

Symptoms  of  mob-mindedness  evince  them- 
selves also  over  large  areas  and  populations.  A 
horrible  catastrophe  rivets  the  attention  of  mil- 
lions, throws  the  larger  public  into  a  common 
emotional  attitude,  and  elicits  a  unified  course  of 
action  or  of  expression.  The  shelling  of  a  Fort 
Sumter,  the  blowing  up  of  the  Maine,  the  sinking 
of  the  Lusitania  create  currents  of  sentiment 
which  surge  through  great  masses  of  population 
and  make  human  beings  respond  as  water  drops 
acted  upon  by  ocean  swells. 

There  is  a  social  consciousness  of  a  more 
rational  quality  which  embraces  the  minds  of 
practically  all  the  citizens  of  the  nation.    A  unity 


go  Sociology 

of  thought  and  feehng  exists  among  all  citizens 
relative  to  the  nation,  to  the  principles  it  en- 
visages, to  the  flag,  and  to  kindred  ideas.  In 
addition,  it  would  be  remarkably  easy  to  convert 
that  oneness  of  thought  and  feeling  into  united 
action,  should  occasion  arise.  It  is  quite  impos- 
sible that  the  uncritically  minded  man  should 
place  himself  outside  the  sweep  and  influence  of 
this  larger  psychical  atmosphere.  Such  mental 
unity  goes  far  to  explain  the  persistence  and 
stability  of  national  life. 

Social  consciousness  expresses  itself  in  a  num- 
ber of  forms.  It  may  be  truer  to  say  that  there 
are  many  social  consciousnesses.  Our  national 
life  is  made  up  of  different  publics  or  group 
minds.  Thus  we  have  great  political  parties  with 
their  platforms  and  policies.  These  parties  are 
composed  of  members  who  believe  alike  and  hold 
together  for  political  action  on  the  basis  of  their 
common  beliefs.  We  have  the  labor  group  and 
the  capital  group,  the  members  of  each  group 
agreeing  on  certain  fundamental  matters  and 
striving  to  realize  their  doctrines.  There  are 
religious  publics,  literary  publics,  publics  founded 
on  scientific  beliefs.  Foist  a  choice  idea  from 
any  of  these  publics  on  public  attention  and  citi- 
zens array  themselves  in  conscious  groups 
according  to  their  attitude  to  the  idea. 

A  paradox  exists  relative  to  the  social  mind 
and  individual  minds.     The   former  is  but  the 


The  Social  Mind  91 

organic  agreement  of  the  latter,  and  the  latter 
is  the  product  of  the  former.  There  is  no  social 
mind,  no  separate,  transcendental,  collective  en- 
tity in  the  form  of  a  social  consciousness,  above 
and  apart  from  individual  minds.  Unless  men 
fundamentally  agree  so  that  cooperative  results 
are  obtainable,  there  can  be  no  society  and  no 
social  mind.  But  this  ability  to  agree,  the  think- 
ing and  feeling  alike,  are  the  outcome  of  indi- 
viduals being  nurtured  and  cultured  in  the 
atmosphere  of  group  association  and  solidarity. 
The  sociologist  is  more  certain  of  nothing  than 
that  individual  mind  and  human  personality  are 
the  gradually  formed  accretions  and  resultants 
of  the  age-old  social  evolution.  Thus  the  agree- 
ment among  minds  is  not  of  the  accidental  and 
superficial  order.  It  is  founded  in  the  consti- 
tution both  of  society  and  the  individual. 

What  Makes  It  Possible 

Since  the  social  mind  is  the  oneness  of  senti- 
ment, thought,  and  tendency  to  reaction  which 
prevails  among  men  generally,  it  must  have 
determining  conditions.  It  is  something  inter- 
individual  and  requires  support.  The  contact  and 
interplay  of  mind  with  mind  we  take  as  a  matter 
of  course  as  we  do  the  air.  Minds  and  society 
have  developed  together,  and  the  apparatus  and 
conditions  needful  to  their  expansion  have  also 
been  an  evolution. 


92  Sociology 

The  ability  to  catch  suggestions  from  the 
movements  and  physical  expressions  of  other 
individuals,  and  the  tendency  to  imitate  and  re- 
spond to  favored  actions,  doubtless  were  the 
original  foundation  factors.  These  are  precondi- 
tions of  a  communicating  system,  and  without 
them  we  do  not  see  how  such  a  system  could  be 
established.  All  the  higher  animals  have  those 
abilities  and  tendencies.  We  need  not  concern 
ourselves  with  how  they  began,  except  to  say 
that  the  rearing  of  families  furnished  beginning 
groups,  and  heredity  favored  those  animals 
which  made  most  out  of  communication.  But  a 
communicating  system  is  absolutely  essential  to 
the  existence  of  a  social  mind. 

In  an  early  chapter  we  noticed  the  rise  of 
language.  This  has  formed  the  nexus  between 
minds  and  furnished  the  channel  for  the  flow  of 
currents  of  ideas.  Whatever  has  perfected  or 
extended  this  connecting  agency  has  facilitated 
the  exchange  of  thought  and  helped  build  up  a 
social  consciousness.  The  development  of  the 
parts  of  speech,  the  establishment  of  sign  lan- 
guage, the  working  out  of  picture  writing,  the 
creation  of  an  alphabet,  of  running  script,  of 
permanent  writing  material,  the  invention  of 
printing  and  the  popularization  of  information, 
the  founding  of  schools  for  the  training  of  minds 
and  the  spread  of  more  exact  knowledge,  the 
introduction    of    newspaper,    library,    telegraph, 


TJie  Social  Mind  93 

telephone,  radiotelegraphy,  the  invention  and 
adoption  of  rapid  transporting  devices  so  that 
mail  and  published  matter  may  reach  their  des- 
tination speedily,  have  widened  the  reach  of 
communication  and  expanded  the  area  of  the 
operation  of  social  consciousness. 

Besides  the  development  of  a  communicating 
system,  some  other  growths  have  favored  the 
establishment  of  a  social  mind.  Among  these 
may  be  mentioned  maxims,  judgments,  training 
habits,  and  the  like.  It  is  one  of  the  functions 
of  language  to  fix  meanings.  An  idea  comes  to 
be  expressed  by  a  certain  word.  That  idea  is 
fixed  in  the  word.  All  who  use  the  word  approx- 
imate the  same  meaning.  In  the  same  manner, 
a  maxim  or  a  judgment  play  large  parts  in  fixing 
and  continuing  ideas.  Maxims  are  especially 
effective  because  they  express,  in  popular  and 
picturesque  form,  certain  popular  judgments 
which  have  been  worked  out  by  long  experience. 
"A  rolling  stone  gathers  no  moss,"  is  the  popular 
verdict  on  the  unfruitfulness  of  the  man  who 
jumps  from  job  to  job.  Such  judgments,  those 
which  serve  to  reflect  a  community  attitude  or 
to  teach  virtues  which  are  useful  for  community 
purposes,  fixate  minds  in  a  common  form  and 
promote  a  larger  consensus  of  opinion. 

Habits  of  training,  in  so  far  as  they  are  simi- 
lar for  diflFerent  families  and  communities,  exert 
a  strong  influence  toward  producing  a  common 


94  Sociology 

consciousness.  Where  all  the  children  are  brought 
up  in  the  same  way  and  to  believe  the  same 
things,  there  should  be  little  divergence  of  views 
and  of  action  when  they  are  called  on  to  conduct 
affairs.  This  is  a  vital  matter  relative  to  the 
greater  issues  and  questions,  where  the  point  of 
view  determines  what  the  ultimate  course  of 
action  by  the  community  or  nation  shall  be. 
Thus,  the  family  point  of  view  relative  to  the 
Negro  and  the  Negro  question  is  likely  to  deter- 
mine the  individual's  lifelong  attitude  toward  the 
Negro  race.  It  is  largely  by  this  means  that  the 
public  mind  in  the  North  and  the  South  relative 
to  the  Negro  has  come  to  be  different.  But  in 
smaller  matters,  such  as  modes  of  eating,  dress- 
ing, and  appearing  in  public,  similarities  and 
differences  of  habit  have  considerable  import. 
Racial  disagreements  are  likely  to  hinge  quite  as 
much  on  these  things  as  on  what  are  considered 
more  weighty.  Racial  consciousness  is  a  form  of 
social  consciousness  which  plays  a  serious  part  in 
the  affairs  of  men.  It  is  chiefly  made  up  of  preju- 
dices, and  these  prejudices  in  turn  are  based  very 
largely  on  such  superficial  differences  between 
racial  groups  as  complexion,  form  of  hair,  modes 
of  living,  of  eating,  of  dressing,  and  the  like. 

Its  Coercive  and  Evaluating  Aspects 

The  social  mind  is  both  a  coercing  and  evaluat- 
ing agency.    It  is  said  that  violators  of  the  laws 


The  Social  Mind  95 

of  the  United  States  have  a  great  fear  of  the 
national  government  because  of  its  wide  reach 
and  profound  authority.  But  there  is  a  force 
that  is  more  feared  than  that  of  the  central 
government,  one  without  the  existence  of  which 
the  central  authority  would  be  of  little  avail. 
This  is  the  social  mind  which  manifests  itself 
in  a  national  sentiment  or  opinion  relative  to  a 
given  act  or  issue.  However  powerful  combi- 
nations of  capital  may  be,  they  have  slight 
respect  for  national  laws  until  those  laws  are 
backed  up  by  a  strong  publicity  and  general 
sentiment.  The  fact  that  the  most  powerful  cor- 
porations are  now  seeking,  by  various  means,  to 
direct  and  mould  public  opinion  relative  to  them- 
selves, is  an  index  of  their  perception  of  the 
force  of  the  sentiment  in  a  democracy.  Could 
this  opinion  be  influenced  in  a  direction  opposed 
to  its  present  course,  current  national  laws  regu- 
lative of  corporate  powers  might  be  forced  from 
the  statute  books.  Probably  the  crucial  test  of 
democracy  lies  in  its  ability  to  keep  open  its  pub- 
licity channels. 

Unless  publicity  is  directed  toward  some  par- 
ticular issue  or  action,  the  social  mind  possesses 
no  coercive  power.  This  is  the  reason  so  many 
laws  which  are  good  are  not  enforced.  They 
were  enacted  before  there  was  a  general  senti- 
ment created  in  their  behalf,  or  they  have  long 
existed  and  the  public  has  forgotten  them.  Every 


96  Sociology 

law  and  community  regulation  is  dependent  for 
its  effectiveness  on  the  support  of  the  wide-awake 
sentiment  of  the  society  involved. 

In  matters  of  right  and  wrong,  of  what  is 
commonly  called  morality,  the  social  mind  acts 
as  the  largest  compelling  agent.  Our  ideas  of 
what  is  right  and  ethical  are  either  purely  formal, 
which  means  that  they  have  been  accepted  from 
a  distant  past  in  which  they  were  probably 
formed  under  the  lead  of  public  sentiment,  or 
they  are  highly  conscious  and  active.  Save  for 
the  cases  of  original  thinkers  who  dare  follow 
their  reason  and  blaze  the  way  to  new  positions 
of  thought  and  conduct,  the  consciences  of  men 
are  incited  only  by  an  aroused  community  con- 
sciousness. Leadership  and  "respectability"  are 
prominent  factors  in  getting  a  consciousness 
aroused.  When  the  average  man  discovers  that 
the  "  respectable "  citizens  of  a  community,  or 
that  a  large  number  of  persons,  favor  a  course 
of  action,  he  is  impressed  and  accepts  "  reasons  " 
which  he  previously  repelled.  After  enough  indi- 
viduals accept  the  new  position  to  make  it  for- 
midable it  may  become  generally  sanctioned. 
Then  it  is  right  and  the  opposite  is  wrong.  All 
follow  the  new  course  of  action  as  a  matter  of 
course  because  of  the  fear  of  community  dis- 
approval if  they  do  not.  For  the  same  reason 
the  anti-social  man  often  is  restrained  from  anti- 
social actions  because  of  the  dread  of  exposure. 


The  Social  Mind  97 

During  the  "  insurance  scandal "  of  a  few  years 
ago,  certain  high  officers  of  insurance  companies 
who  had  engaged  in  nefarious  practices  and  yet 
had  posed  as  public  benefactors,  withered  like 
blighted  leaves  before  the  public  disapproval 
which  followed  the  exposure,  and  in  some  cases 
died  of  shame.  The  fear  of  what  people  will 
think  and  say,  the  reverence  for  the  community 
sentiment,  is  so  strong  in  all,  that  it  may  be  said 
that  most  of  the  force  of  conscience  is  vested  in 
public  opinion. 

Such  considerations  introduce  the  idea  of  the 
evaluating  function  which  resides  in  the  social 
mind.  Every  active  social  mind,  every  new 
incitement  which  the  social  consciousness  expe- 
riences, involves  the  process  of  setting  and  fixing 
values.  If  a  course  of  action  is  right,  it  is 
right  because  society  in  the  past  has  so  deter- 
mined it.  When  a  new  course  of  action  opens  up 
before  men,  one  the  ethical  nature  of  which  has 
not  been  determined,  except  when  the  evils  to 
society  are  very  apparent,  they  are  left  free  to 
follow  it.  But  if  injurious  social  results  appear, 
the  public's  attention  is  directed  to  the  new  situa- 
tion. After  due  consideration,  if  the  evils  are 
found  to  be  considerable,  the  new  form  of  activ- 
ity is  proscribed  or  so  modified  as  to  be  harmless. 
Social  consciousness  has  placed  a  valuation  on 
it,  has  pronounced  an  ethical  judgment,  and  has 
set  up  the  norm  which  its  members  are  to  respect. 


98  Sociology 

As  a  matter  of  course  all  the  ethical  judgments 
which  men  highly  regard  have  thus  been  worked 
out  in  the  past  by  a  process  of  practical  testing. 
Actions  which  have  proved  socially  harmless  or 
positively  beneficial  have  been  permitted  or  ap- 
proved ;  those  which  proved  harmful  were  pro- 
scribed. Needless  to  say  that  society  may  be 
expected  to  continue  this  function  into  the  distant 
future. 

The  Direction  of  the  Social  Mind 

As  is  the  case  with  the  mind  of  the  individual, 
the  course  of  the  social  mind  may  be  influenced. 
In  a  genetic  sense  we  may  say  that  the  movement 
of  the  social  mind  is  toward  a  fuller,  more  intelli- 
gent comprehension  of  the  conditions  of  collective 
life.  Sometimes  this  is  called  an  evolution  toward 
social  self-consciousness.  It  is  certain  that  there 
is  a  larger  awareness  of  societal  affairs  on  the 
part  of  the  members  of  the  community  today 
than  there  was  a  century  ago.  As  compared  with 
the  situation  in  primitive  society,  community 
consciousness  in  modern  times  is  brilliant  and 
effulgent.  Not  only  does  the  social  conscious- 
ness comprehend  a  larger  number  of  considera- 
tions than  previously,  but  it  is  far  more  intelli- 
gent relative  to  a  much  greater  proportion  of 
them.  Society  has  approached  that  stage  of  its 
development  when  it  is  becoming  conscious  of 
itself. 


The  Social  Mind  99 

If  knowledge  about  conditions  yields  a  power 
over  those  conditions  commensurate  with  the 
completeness  of  the  information,  the  fact  that 
society  has  developed  a  wider  and  deeper  intelli- 
gence concerning  collective  aJffairs  warrants  the 
conclusion  that  by  this  means  it  must  have  at- 
tained some  influence  over  its  own  direction. 
By  building  up  an  understanding  of  his  own 
mind,  of  its  activities,  its  organization,  and  its 
origin,  man  has  attained  a  more  complete  mas- 
tery over  himself.  In  like  manner  a  pro  founder 
insight  into  the  nature  of  society  has  not  only 
assisted  in  the  development  of  a  social  conscious- 
ness, but  has  enabled  that  consciousness  to 
operate  as  a  controlling  and  directive  force  of 
the  further  activities  of  the  collectivity.  Since 
in  its  nature  society  is  psychical,  and  since,  as 
we  have  had  reason  to  conclude,  society  exists 
to  that  exact  measure  and  degree  that  a  common 
and  cooperative  consciousness  occurs,  it  follows 
that  any  directive  influence  the  social  mind  is 
able  to  exert  on  the  development  of  society  is 
at  the  same  time  and  in  reality  a  control  and 
regulation  of  itself.  Thus  if  social  evolution  has 
been  toward  a  more  developed  social  conscious- 
ness and  a  more  intelligent  shaping  of  collective 
affairs,  it  has  involved  the  consequent  larger  self- 
control  and  self-direction  on  the  part  of  the  social 
mind. 

Inasmuch  as  the  social  mind  is  susceptible  of 


lOO  Sociology 

direction  by  means  of  its  own  agency,  it  follows 
that  it  may  also  be  influenced  by  other  agencies. 
Every  considerable  organized  body  of  opinion 
that  actively  exerts  its  influence  toward  shaping 
the  mind  of  the  public  has  its  due  effect.  Since 
many  organizations  have  for  their  specific  aim 
the  moulding  of  minds,  and  many  others  seek  to 
do  so  on  particular  occasions,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  social  mind  must  bear  the  imprint  of  their 
efforts.  Instead  of  "  making  itself  up "  it  is 
being  made  up.  Consequently,  it  is  the  com- 
posite of  all  the  influences  at  work  on  it.  Only 
in  so  far  as  the  people  in  general  arrive  at  a 
thorough  understanding  of  society  and  what 
affects  its  welfare  for  evil,  can  the  social  mind 
be  rendered  immune  to  the  effects  of  pernicious 
influences. 


CHAPTER  IX 


SOCIAL   SELECTION 


AFTER  observing  the  clash  of  interests  that 
seem  to  pervade  society  in  almost  every 
quarter,  there  is  a  temptation  to  conclude  that 
all  society  is  conflict  and  that  the  struggle  for 
existence  is  as  dominant  in  human  society  now 
as  it  is  among  animals  in  the  jungle.  The  temp- 
tation is  all  the  greater  if  the  observer  dwells 
in  historic  Europe,  where  races  and  peoples  enter- 
tain for  each  other  such  bitter  animosity  because 
they  have  fought  with  one  another  for  ages.  On 
the  other  hand,  there  is  a  tendency  in  some  quar- 
ters to  regard  the  collective  life  as  a  pacific 
process  and  to  think  of  human  beings  as  lifted 
above  the  plane  of  conflict.  Both  of  these  posi- 
tions are  extreme,  and  the  truth  lies  somewhere 
between  the  two  conceptions. 

Society  and  Natural  Selection 

We  may  admit  that  biological  principles  have 
a  large  measure  of  application  to  society  and  to 
individuals  in  their  organized  capacity  without 
having  to  infer  that  men  are  dominated  by  those 
principles  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others.  There 
is  a  close  analogy  between  the  relation  of  the 

lOI 


I02  Sociology 

social  to  the  biological  processes,  and  that  of  the 
biological  to  the  physical  and  chemical.  The 
opinion  is  often  ventured  that  the  life  processes 
of  human  bodies  and  other  organisms  can  be 
reduced  to  chemical  terms.  But  no  extended 
proofs  exist  that  this  is  possible.  The  organic, 
synthetic  element  present,  especially  in  the 
higher  organisms,  has  completely  eluded  the 
attempts  of  the  present  experimenters  to  reduce 
it  to  chemical  terms.  Likewise,  while  we  must 
acknowledge  that  social  existence  rests  on  bio- 
logical foundations,  it  is  apparent  that  society  is 
non-biological  and  that  the  mutual-aid  factor 
cannot  be  analyzed  into  biological  elements.  In- 
stead, therefore,  of  seeking  to  account  for  the 
facts  of  society  on  the  grounds  of  natural  selec- 
tion, the  sociologist  must  make  use  of  a  principle 
that  was  introduced  later  into  the  evolutionary 
process.  Because  any  given  societal  phenomenon 
is  the  result  of  the  conditions  at  work  in  society, 
we  may  think  of  the  new  principle  as  social 
selection.  Just  as,  in  a  state  of  nature,  natural 
selection  includes  all  of  the  factors  which  deter- 
mine what  plant  and  animal  forms  shall  survive, 
so,  under  a  collective  regime,  societal  selection 
governs  the  persistence  of  social  forms  and  of 
individuals. 

The  essential  factors  in  natural  selection  are 
reproduction,  heredity,  variation,  struggle,  and 
adaptation.     All  forms  of  life  reproduce.     The 


Social  Selection  103 

tendency  is  to  multiply  rapidly,  the  ratio  of  in- 
crease varying  with  the  species  and,  among 
animals,  decreasing  with  the  advance  of  evolu- 
tion. By  heredity  the  form  and  qualities  of  the 
parents  are  passed  down  to  the  progeny.  This 
serves  to  establish  the  type  and  to  preserve  the 
integrity  of  the  different  varieties.  But  no  two 
individuals  are  exactly  similar.  Small  variations 
make  the  offspring  slightly  different  from  the 
parents.  Should  these  variations  prove  service- 
able to  the  organism  they  may  recur  more  mag- 
nified in  succeeding  generations  of  offspring, 
with  the  result  that  new  varieties  of  a  superior 
type  appear.  But  because  organisms  multiply 
rapidly,  a  region  may  become  congested  and,  as 
a  consequence,  a  struggle  for  subsistence  takes 
place  between  individuals  and  types.  Further, 
the  physical  environment  will  undoubtedly  favor 
certain  varieties  more  than  others,  and  a  process 
of  adaptation  is  thus  set  up.  The  attempt  to 
live,  opposed  by  the  other  forms  of  life  and 
frequently  by  the  physical  conditions,  constitutes 
the  struggle  for  existence.  Hence  it  is  held  that 
evolution  of  the  forms  of  life  has  taken  place  by 
natural  selection. 

The  Factor  of  Mutuality 

In  the  biological  realm,  under  the  conditions 
of  natural  selection,  a  process  of  adaptation  is 
carried  on  in  which  the  organisms  which  are 


104  Sociology 

permitted  to  survive  are  said  to  be  adjusted.  The 
adjustment  is  to  all  the  factors  of  the  environ- 
ment, involving  the  physical,  the  vegetal,  and 
animal  features.  The  surviving  organism  con- 
forms to  the  physical  and  devours  or  crowds  out 
other  biological  organisms. 

Now,  the  import  of  a  collective  mode  of  life 
is  that  the  force  of  natural  selection  is  modified, 
for  the  very  essence  of  society  is  mutuality.  As 
fast  as  society  was  evolved,  the  biological  method 
of  physical  dominance  and  deadly  struggle  be- 
tween individual  organisms  was  mollified  and 
mitigated  by  the  interjection  of  an  attitude  of 
conciliation  and  a  spirit  of  cooperation.  In  place 
of  individual  seeking  to  exterminate  every  other 
individual,  groups  of  individuals  acting  together 
faced  the  common  enemy  and  constructively  re- 
acted on  the  soil  and  plant  life.  While  it  is 
impossible  to  discover  a  nature  that  is  abso- 
lutely "  red  in  tooth  and  claw,"  large  sections 
are  undoubtedly  lacking  in  the  mutual  factor. 
However,  the  element  of  mutual  aid  is  clearly 
visible  among  most  of  the  higher  animals,  and 
it  is  clear  that,  among  them,  for  the  process  of 
"  struggle  to  the  death  "  between  individuals  has 
been  substituted  in  part  one  of  group  existence 
and  competition. 

The  larger  the  scope  and  the  higher  the  de- 
velopment of  the  social  group,  other  things  equal, 
the  greater  the  amelioration  of  the  existence  of 


Social  Stiection  105 

the  members  constituting  it.  The  rule  of  might 
within  the  group  was  checked  by  sentiments  of 
affection  and  esteem.  Brute  strength  gave  way 
to  the  appeals  of  gentleness  and  humanity.  Thus 
the  appearance  of  society  involved  the  use  of  the 
new  principle  of  social  selection.  This  did  not 
in  the  beginning  displace  natural  selection,  nor 
has  it  ever  entirely  done  so.  The  factors  of 
natural  selection  still  operate,  although  not  in 
their  former  complete  and  exclusive  manner. 
Often  the  processes  of  heredity,  variation,  multi- 
plication, competition,  and  adaptation  are  visible. 

Modern  society  is  assuming  a  very  positive  atti- 
tude towards  certain  of  the  factors  of  natural 
selection.  It  is  seeking  to  make  use  of  heredity 
and  variation  for  the  improvement  of  the  race 
stock.  By  preventing  the  occurrence  of  defective 
persons  it  endeavors  to  build  a  better  physical 
and  mental  type.  In  the  evolution  of  its  stand- 
ards of  living  and  of  aspirations  it  has  placed  a 
check  on  the  rapid  multiplication  of  the  stock. 
The  improvements  in  the  construction  of  build- 
ings, in  methods  of  heating  and  ventilation,  in 
matters  of  sanitation,  and  in  wearing  apparel 
have  rendered  practically  all  portions  of  the  earth 
habitable,  robbed  the  deadly  zones  of  their  power 
to  penalize,  and  given  man  a  greater  power  of 
adaptation  to  conditions. 

Besides  these  mitigating  tendencies,  society  has 
worked  out  a  large  exemption  of  certain  classes 


io6  Sociology 

from  the  immediate  and  extreme  results  of  the 
former  inevitable  struggle.  Among  animals  there 
was  little  or  no  leniency  shown  the  unfortunate 
members.  The  disabled,  the  feeble,  the  mentally 
deranged,  the  sick,  the  old,  were  left  to  their  fate. 
Among  many  groups  of  present  primitive  men 
only  a  little  less  "  brutality  "  is  manifested.  Weak 
infants  are  exposed  in  order  that  they  may  be 
eliminated ;  the  old  are  killed  or  left  to  die ;  the 
insane,  idiotic,  and  sick  are  treated  as  possessed 
of  evil  spirits,  or  abandoned.  Society  has 
wrought  a  revolution  in  these  respects.  The 
more  delicate  the  infant,  the  greater  its  care. 
Great  efiforts  are  made  to  preserve  the  lives  of 
all  classes  of  the  disabled  in  body  and  mind. 
Society  maintains  munificent  institutions  for  the 
preservation  of  its  derelicts  who  in  a  primitive 
age  would  have  been  exterminated  by  nature. 
Further,  the  ofif spring  of  civilized  peoples  are 
guarded  from  danger  and  stress  in  many  ways. 
Those  of  the  Vv^ealthy  may  never  have  to  put 
forth  the  least  efifort  for  their  subsistence  or 
toward  being  useful. 

Not  only  has  the  establishment  of  collective 
life  mitigated  existence,  it  has  enhanced  it.  The 
establishment  of  cooperative  effort  in  numerous 
directions  has  expanded  life.  Production  of  the 
goods  to  satisfy  wants  has  been  improved  so  that 
there  is  a  greater  assurance  of  existence  and  a 
larger    range    of    satisfaction    and    realization. 


Social  Selection  107 

Higher  interests  and  wants  have  been  developed 
and  mutuality  has  secured  their  appeasement. 

The  Method  of  Social  Selection 

The  method  of  natural  selection  is  brute  strug- 
gle, the  competition  of  might  or  of  cunning.  That 
of  social  selection  has  been  and  is  now  such 
struggle  plus  the  mutual  element  of  cooperative 
assistance.  The  ideal  society  is  one  in  which  the 
purely  selfish  element,  the  desire  to  exploit 
others,  disappears,  and  the  desire  to  afford  each 
human  being  the  opportunity  to  develop  his  tal- 
ents to  the  fullest  prevails.  While  we  are  far 
removed  from  that  ideal  society,  it  is  pretty 
apparent  that  our  development  is  in  that  direc- 
tion. When  that  stage  is  reached  social  selec- 
tion will  be  wholly  a  mutual,  reciprocal  process. 
Now  it  is  a  synthesis  of  might,  cunning,  and 
mutuality.  But  because  social  selection  involves 
factors  not  included  in  natural  selection  it  is 
thereby  rendered  different  and  is  constituted  a 
higher  synthetic  process. 

The  competitive  element  which  obtains  among 
men  is  partly  based  on  inherent  biological  fac- 
tors. Thus  when  two  men  compete  for  position 
or  wealth,  the  outcome  is  determined  by  their 
comparative  capacity  and  ability,  capacity  rep- 
resenting heredity,  and  ability  the  influence  of 
training.  Health,  strength,  temperament,  and 
capacity  are  general  conditions  of  social  selection. 


lo8  Sociology 

The  struggle  process  in  society  has  undergone 
a  transformation  in  the  course  of  social  evolu- 
tion. It  has  become  less  an  affair  of  physical 
strength.  Whether  it  takes  place  between  indi- 
viduals or  groups,  conflict  today  rests  on  intellec- 
tual prowess  more  than  formerly.  Cunning, 
shrewdness,  indirection,  sheer  mental  power,  are 
important  factors  in  determining  the  outcome. 
It  has  also  become  more  largely  an  affair  of 
groups  than  of  individuals.  Within  a  given  group 
or  organization,  individuals  may  compete  for 
place.  Yet  standardization  of  processes  has  done 
much  to  eliminate  this  kind  of  conflict.  But  be- 
tween rival  group  interests,  whether  industrial, 
political,  sectarian,  or  "  social,"  the  competition 
is  often  intense.  Besides  this,  there  is  a  conflict 
between  classes,  often  of  a  strained  and  bitter 
character. 

Still  another  change  has  been  to  create  a  clash 
between  the  individual  and  the  system.  Unless 
he  is  a  member  of  an  influential  class  or  organi- 
zation, the  destiny  of  the  individual  is  determined 
by  the  industrial  system.  Treated  as  an  incident, 
as  a  pawn  in  the  process  of  business,  having  the 
fate  of  self  and  family  decided  without  consulta- 
tion or  recourse,  the  individual  frequently  sets 
himself  against  the  cosmic  pressure  of  the  social 
system  which  restrains  him. 

Because  of  the  conflict  of  great  interests,  the 
attempt  of  vast  industrial  systems  to  subordinate 


Social  Select  ion  109 

the  larger  welfare  to  their  own  ends,  as  well  as 
because  of  the  appearance  of  other  phenomena 
which  menace  the  general  interest  that  society 
represents,  there  is  a  demand  for  a  stricter  and 
larger  social  control.  The  attitude  of  mind  is 
rapidly  developing  which  calls  for  the  extension 
of  the  functions  of  the  only  agency  which  has 
the  power  to  coordinate  conflicting  elements  and 
the  neutrality  to  fairly  represent  all  interests.  As 
a  consequence,  state  control  and  supervision  of 
industrial  processes  and  conditions  of  life  gener- 
ally has  been  greatly  extended.  Thus  is  being 
wrought  out  the  highest  stage  of  social  selection, 
that  of  socialization. 


CHAPTER  X 

PROGRESS  AND  ITS   CONDITIONS 

OF  the  two  conceptions,  evolution  and  prog- 
ress, the  latter  is  the  more  important  for 
sociology.  Modern  sociologists  and  social  re- 
formers are  bound  to  concern  themselves  with  the 
idea  of  progress  and  the  instruments  by  which  it 
is  attained.  It  will  be  well,  therefore,  to  consider 
the  chief  features  of  progress. 

The  Nature  of  Progress 

It  has  been  a  common  mistake  to  regard  evolu- 
tion and  progress  as  identical  concepts  and  proc- 
esses ;  but  progress  is  distinctly  a  sociological 
idea  and  process,  peculiar  to  society,  while  evolu- 
tion embraces  the  development  alike  of  the  uni- 
verse, of  celestial  systems,  worlds,  the  organic 
realms  of  animals  and  plants,  and  society.  Prog- 
gress  is  thus  seen  to  be  but  a  phase  of  the  larger 
process  of  evolution.  In  another  respect  their 
lack  of  identity  is  obvious.  Evolution  involves 
all  that  takes  place  in  any  given  system  during  the 
course  of  its  existence,  whether  it  is  in  the  nature 
of  advance  or  of  retrogression.  Progress  cannot 
pertain  to  any  process  that  tears  down  the  system 
and  results  in  deterioration.  Consequently,  only 
no 


Progress  and  Its  Conditions  1 1 1 

those  changes  and  transformations  which  are  for 
the  improvement  of  the  system  concerned  can  be 
rightly  termed  progressive. 

Progress  also  includes  the  idea  of  well-being. 
The  welfare  of  the  individuals  which  constitute 
the  given  system  of  society  is  the  great  end  of 
progress.  This  has  been  denied  by  some  writers 
because  in  their  estimation  a  scientific  account  of 
society  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  subjective 
states  of  the  individual.  A  scientific  sociolog}', 
they  maintain,  would  concern  itself  only  with  the 
formal  process,  not  with  what  men  think  the 
process  should  attain.  But  satisfaction  is  an 
essential  part  of  the  social  process,  because,  in 
part,  it  determines  what  direction  the  process 
shall  take.  Further,  the  only  justification  to  be 
found  for  any  system  is  in  its  ability  to  realize 
the  human  element  —  the  well-being  of  man,  the 
general  welfare  or  contentment.  Herbert  Spen- 
cer believed  that  evolution  and  progress  were  one 
and  the  same  process  because  evolution  meant 
a  better  adjustment  of  Hfe  to  its  conditions  and 
a  better  adjustment  involved  the  subjective  fac- 
tor of  well-being,  or  satisfaction.  But  he  for- 
got his  own  teaching  that  evolution  covers  both 
advance  and  retrogression,  and  he  overlooked 
the  fact  that  a  social  organization  in  its  growth 
may  meet  the  criteria  of  evolution  and  yet  prove 
oppressive.  Some  of  the  great  modern  trusts 
exemplify  this  statement.     They  have  enlarged 


1 1 2  Sociology 

and  expanded,  differentiated,  and  integrated,  un- 
til they  have  stood  as  almost  perfect  examples  of 
social  organization ;  yet  the  well-being  of  their 
workers  often  has  been  disregarded  and  their 
operations  have  not  always  conduced  to  the 
larger  welfare.  It  is  objected  that  progress 
should  not  be  treated  by  sociology  because  the 
idea  of  progress  involves  utility  and  science 
should  avoid  utilitarian  aims.  In  reply  it  may  be 
said  that  of  all  the  sciences  only  the  highest  kinds 
of  mathematics  have  ever  been  in  the  position  of 
being  able  to  disregard  utility,  and  that  for  only 
a  short  time.  We  have  no  sciences  that  ulti- 
mately are  not  intended  to  be  useful.  But,  in  so 
far  as  it  prejudices  the  judgment,  it  is  justi- 
fiable to  exclude  a  consideration  of  the  immedi- 
ately useful  from  pure  science.  However,  in  the 
long  run,  the  only  justification  of  any  science  is 
that  of  being  useful. 

Able  writers  have  maintained  that  society  is 
realizing  progress  whenever  it  moves  away  from 
a  "pain  economy"  and  realizes  in  larger  measure 
a  "  pleasure  economy."  Animals  leading  a  wild 
life  live  in  a  state  of  fear  of  death  from  their 
enemies.  Every  animal  is  destined  to  die  of  vio- 
lence or  starvation.  The  satisfaction  of  funda- 
mental wants  of  mere  existence  is  ever  pressing. 
Lower  human  society  was  very  little  removed  from 
this  condition.  With  the  growth  of  cooperative 
ability  the  invention  of  mechanical  devices  of  of- 


Progress  and  Its  Conditions         113 

f ense  and  defense,  and  the  establishment  of  organ- 
ized agencies  for  getting  food,  making  the  many 
forms  of  goods  for  satisfying  wants,  and  of  pro- 
moting Hfe  generally,  the  force  of  the  pain  econ- 
omy waned  and  that  of  the  pleasure  economy 
strengthened.  The  very  center  of  the  system  was 
the  invention  and  adoption  of  devices  for  bring- 
ing a  greater  store  of  satisfaction  to  the  masses 
of  people.  Hence  it  may  be  said  that  progress 
represents  the  better  adaptation  of  all  social 
agencies  to  the  conditions  of  life  and  the  conse- 
quent well-being  which  results  from  it. 

Modern  progress  is  characterized  by  a  height- 
ened social  consciousness  or  is  the  product  of 
collective  intelligence.  It  would  require  an  ex- 
tended discussion  to  determine  whether  or  not 
progress  has  always  been  the  result  of  an  active 
public  mind.  It  might  seem  that  in  primitive 
times  favorable  adai)tations  of  social  agencies 
could  have  been  effected  without  foresight  on  the 
part  of  the  group  acting  as  a  group.  Yet  it  is 
found  that  among  such  very  primitive  peoples 
as  the  Australians,  before  changes  in  the  institu- 
tions were  made,  the  proposals  were  seriously 
considered  in  a  council  of  the  leading  men  of  the 
group.  It  is  likely  that,  w'hen  custom  and  tra- 
dition were  so  greatly  revered,  as  they  were  in 
primitive  times,  the  transformation  and  readap- 
tation  of  at  least  important  ones  must  have  had 
an  authoritative  sanction.     Whatever  may  have 


114  Sociology 

been  the  case  then,  it  is  certain  that  fundamental 
changes  in  modern  society  are  either  projected 
by  some  form  of  the  state,  as  the  representative 
of  the  given  society,  or,  when  made  by  other 
agencies,  they  are  finally  sanctioned  or  regulated 
by  the  collective  authority.  No  agency  can  be 
permitted,  for  long,  to  v^ork  against  the  interest 
of  society  in  general.  The  state  is  the  guardian 
of  the  interest  of  the  masses  of  its  citizens,  and  is 
bound  to  sit  in  judgment  on  the  various  organi- 
zations which  affect  the  lives  of  its  people. 
Beneficent  activities  are  sanctioned  or  permitted, 
injurious  ones  are  prevented  or  modified. 

Possibility  of  Progress 

The  term  progress  is  used  so  widely,  and  what 
is  supposed  to  represent  progress  is  appreciated 
in  terms  of  such  unction,  as  to  force  the  infer- 
ence that  progress  is  universally  desired.  Yet 
nothing  is  further  from  the  truth,  for  progress 
necessitates  a  transformation  of  social  organi- 
zation, a  fundamental  change  in  the  social  order. 
A  readjustment  of  this  nature  is  destined  to  be 
opposed  for  two  reasons. 

First,  individuals  in  general  are  creatures  of 
habit,  and,  since  social  readjustment  signifies 
the  breaking  up  of  customary  modes  of  reacting 
and  the  establishment  of  new  ones,  they  may  be 
depended  on  to  resent  innovations. 


Progress  and  Its  Conditions         115 

Second,  every  social  order  comprehends  a 
privileged  class  as  a  part  of  its  organization,  and 
because  progress  in  reality  involves  a  reduction 
of  unjust  privileges  it  can  only  be  dreaded  and 
hated  by  that  powerful  section  of  society.  In  so 
far  as  it  signifies  disturbing  privilege,  progress 
can  come  only  by  being  forced  upon  the  privi- 
leged class ;  and,  since  it  means  the  disturbance 
of  custom,  the  masses  of  people  must  be  con- 
vinced that  their  interests  demand  it  before  it  is 
possible  of  realization. 

The  foregoing  statement  illustrates  the  ob- 
stacles to  progress  but  it  does  not  prove  its  pos- 
sibility or  impossibility.  Some  acute  thinkers 
have  sought  to  demonstrate  the  impossibility  of 
progress.  M.  Emile  Faguet  believes  that  progress 
is  beyond  attainment  because  it  involves  the  idea 
of  continuous  improvement,  something  he  indi- 
cates we  cannot  demonstrate  since  we  cannot 
prove  that  human  beings  as  individuals  possess 
greater  knowledge,  happiness,  and  morality  than 
originally,  and  that  if  they  do  the  advance  has 
been  a  continuous  one.  It  is  possible  to  prove 
that  scientific  knowledge  has  increased  but  such 
knowledge  does  not  increase  happiness  and  mor- 
ality. But  while  it  is  impossible  to  demonstrate 
progress  in  general,  it  is  feasible  to  believe  in  and 
attain  certain  kinds  of  improvement.  Progress 
in  general  cannot  be  attained,  in  his  estimation, 
because  we  cannot  know  the  goal  of  society,  and 


1 1 6  Sociology 

without  this  knowledge  we  have  no  means  of 
continuous  social  direction. 

The  late  sociologist  Ludwig  Gumplowicz  de- 
veloped a  system  in  which  the  possibility  of  prog- 
ress was  denied.  According  to  his  teaching  an 
increase  of  human  misery  is  the  inevitable  result 
of  development,  and  is  inherent  in  the  social 
process.  For  social  evolution  involves  the  mul- 
tiplication of  wants  on  the  part  of  individuals  and 
it  is  unlikely  that  continuous  differentiation  and 
multiplication  will  be  checked.  But  while  the 
privileged  few  control  the  means  by  which  all 
their  wants  are  realized,  the  preponderating  ma- 
jority of  men  have  developed  no  corresponding 
ability  of  attaining  such  satisfaction.  Indeed  that 
ability  has  remained  comparatively  stationary  in 
the  face  of  increasing  numbers  of  biting  desires. 
And  when  we  seek  to  form  a  judgment  of  future 
social  conditions,  and  to  ground  that  judgment 
on  the  course  of  evolution  thus  far  realized,  we 
find  no  basis  of  hope  that  the  situation  will  be 
changed.  Indeed,  we  observe  the  control  of  the 
means  of  satisfaction  so  firmly  held  by  the  ruling 
classes  that  its  weakening  is  beyond  rational  ex- 
pectation. As  a  consequence  we  are  forced  to 
picture  the  future  lot  of  the  common  people  as 
becoming  continually  worse,  for  an  increase  of 
misery  is  consequent  to  the  genesis  of  ever  mul- 
tiplying wants  that  cannot  be  satisfied. 

Notwithstanding  the  large  measure  of  truth  in 


Progress  and  Its  Conditions         117 

the  foregoing  statements,  there  is  warrant  in  be- 
Heving  in  the  possibihty  of  progress. 

First,  the  more  advanced  a  society  becomes  the 
greater  is  its  abihty  to  settle  on  a  goal  which  it 
desires  to  realize.  It  is  quite  likely  that  this  na- 
tional society  will  emphasize  one  set  of  attain- 
ments, and  that  one  another  set.  There  can  be 
little  question  that  the  German  nation  has  ac- 
cepted and  realized  most  successfully  a  certain 
national  ideal  and  that  this  fact  differentiates  it 
from  other  nations.  A  widespread  intelligence 
as  to  social  conditions  in  general  is  the  founda- 
tion of  an  agreement  on  the  ideal  to  be  realized, 
and  a  sympathetic  understanding  is  the  essential 
to  the  universal  acceptance  of  a  systematic  plan 
for  its  attainment. 

Second,  an  intelligent  interpretation  of  the 
course  of  human  development  results  in  the  be- 
lief that  the  lot  of  the  masses  of  people  has 
undergone  improvement.  For  note  what  is  ex- 
pressed and  involved  in  these  successive  stages 
of  social  evolution :  cannibalism,  slavery,  serf- 
dom, free  labor,  the  right  of  property,  and  civil 
and  political  rights.  The  terms  of  this  series  rep- 
resent the  condition  of  the  mass  of  people  at  the 
successive  stages  of  societal  development,  and 
the  series  indicates  a  tremendous  and  consistent, 
if  slow,  advance  in  the  enjoyment  of  personal 
liberty,  property  rights,  and  the  larger  satisfac- 
tions of  life.     While  the  great  majority  of  men 


ii8  Sociology 

today  have  many  wants  they  cannot  satisfy,  yet, 
except  for  a  small  minority,  many  desires  besides 
the  more  necessitous  ones  are  realized.  And 
while  considerable  sections  of  our  populations 
actually  face  want  in  the  midst  of  plenty,  it  is 
doubtful  if  those  populations  would  be  willing 
to  exchange  their  condition  for  those  of  the 
slaves  and  serfs  of  previous  ages.  And  this  is 
the  more  true  because  present  normal  individuals 
possess  a  foundation  of  hope  that  they  may  be 
able  to  work  an  improvement  in  their  lot  while 
the  slave  and  serf  possessed  no  basis  for  such 
optimism. 

Third,  a  consideration  of  the  development  of 
the  agencies  of  social  control  by  the  masses,  to- 
gether with  that  of  the  sociolog}'  of  control,  war- 
rants the  belief  that  it  is  possible  to  improve  the 
lot  of  the  average  man  and  ultimately  to  abolish 
from  society  the  major  portion  of  misery.  If  it 
is  a  fact  that  the  conditions  of  the  masses  have 
improved  during  the  centuries,  it  is  also  a  fact 
that  the  gains  have  come  because  those  masses 
have  taken  over  more  and  more  of  societal  direc- 
tion and  have  attained  a  greater  appreciation  of 
their  place  in  the  social  system.  A  study  of  the 
evolution  of  the  state  indicates  that  that  insti- 
tution has  developed  away  from  being  a  mere 
agent  of  exploitation  in  the  hand  of  a  ruling  class 
and  towards  becoming  the  means  by  which  a 
whole  people  regulates  its   common  life.     And 


Progress  and  Its  Conditions         119 

although  tlie  process  is  still  incomplete  it  is  a 
hopefully  continuing  process. 

Likewise  the  sociology  of  control  demon- 
strates that  society  is  a  field  of  forces  and  con- 
ditions which  may  be  studied  and  understood. 
Because  they  may  be  understood,  as  is  the  case 
with  natural  forces  whose  characteristics  are 
known,  they  can  be  harnessed,  regulated,  and 
directed.  Hence  the  conclusion  arises  that  a  peo- 
ple may  successfully  coordinate  and  direct  the 
forces  and  conditions  of  its  life  by  promoting  a 
universal  insight  in  the  societal  realm.  But  it  is 
essential  to  recognize  that  a  knowledge  of  the 
appropriate  means  to  attain  societal  ends  and  a 
general  desire  to  realize  them  are  as  imperatively 
demanded  as  knowledge. 

Conditions  of  Progress 

Since  the  nature  of  progress  is  not  identical 
with  that  of  evolution,  it  would  be  expected  that 
the  conditions  which  favor  the  former  may  not 
correspond  to  those  which  were  seen  to  deter- 
mine evolution.  In  so  far  as  evolution  consists 
of  an  adaptation  of  society  to  nature  in  such 
manner  that  the  well-being  of  the  members  of 
society  is  promoted,  the  conditions  which  account 
for  such  an  adaptation  are  also  conditions  of 
progress.  Thus  it  was  necessary  for  the  United 
States  government  to  systematize  sanitation  in 
the  Panama  zone  as  a  precondition  to  construct- 


120  Sociology 

ing  the  Panama  canal.  This  doubtless  was  an 
evolutionary  step,  as  it  was  one  of  progress.  But 
there  are  some  special  factors  or  conditions  which 
must  exist  in  order  that  progress  may  take  place 
steadily  and  extensively. 

One  condition  is  the  existence  of  intelligence. 
More  than  any  other  agency  intelligence  begets 
progress.  Custom-bound  and  backward-looking 
minds  bind  society  to  a  treadmill  of  repetition. 
Improvement  does  not  arise  when  what  obtains 
is  regarded  as  so  sacred  that  it  may  not  be  read- 
justed. Reason  studies  conditions  and  perceives 
that  evils  arise  because  conditions  are  unfavor- 
able and  that  they  may  be  eliminated  by  a  process 
of  modification.  It  invents,  devises,  organizes, 
and  transforms.  A  few  such  minds  in  a 
community  may  induce  favorable  action.  Mul- 
tiply the  number  of  rational  minds  and  bene- 
ficial actions  are  increased.  Raise  the  intelli- 
gence of  all  the  minds  of  the  group,  and  advan- 
tageous ways  to  secure  results  are  sought  by 
all.  Progress  is  advanced  to  the  degree  minds 
are  rationalized  and  in  the  measure  of  the  uni- 
versality of  intelligence  among  the  people.  Con- 
tinuous progress  is  dependent  on  the  steady  ele- 
vation of  intelligence  among  a  citizenship  at 
large. 

Along  with  a  greater  development  of  intelli- 
gence must  go  an  increased  altruism.  Intelli- 
gence left  to  itself  may  work  individualistically 


Progress  and  Its  Conditions         121 

and  selfishly.  Not  all  inventive  minds  are  con- 
siderate of  the  welfare  of  others  in  the  effects 
which  their  inventions  produce.  It  is  possible 
to  promote  an  organization  which  secures  a 
greater  efficiency  in  its  particular  processes  but 
which,  at  the  same  time,  is  capable  of  being  used 
to  benefit  a  few  and  injure  the  many.  Since 
society  is  a  gigantic  cooperative  association  in 
which  every  citizen  has  vested  rights  all  agencies 
must  be  used  for  the  common  good.  A  large 
sympathy  with  other  men  and  an  insight  into 
the  nature  of  society  are  necessary  safeguards  of 
the  common  life. 

An  additional  condition  of  progress  is  the 
institution  of  an  adequate  means  of  social  con- 
trol. Since  it  has  proved  possible  that  individ- 
uals and  groups  may  organize  agencies  which 
they  use  for  selfish  purposes  to  the  injury  of  the 
masses  of  their  fellow  citizens,  it  becomes  highly 
essential  that  society  shall  provide  a  means  of 
regulation  and  control  which  shall  make  such 
results  impossible.  That  society  has  perfected  a 
complete  system  of  such  control  agencies  is  obvi- 
ously untrue,  but  it  has  made  advance  to  the  ex- 
tent that  initial  provisions  have  been  instituted. 
Since  society  consists  of  all  its  individual  mem- 
bers, and  all  have  equal  vested  rights  to  the  bene- 
fits of  society  as  a  cooperative  undertaking,  it 
is  obvious  that  regulating  agencies  should  be 
under  the  control  of  the  citizenship  generally.    If 


122  Sociology 

they  are  to  be  secure  in  their  rights  and  produc- 
tive labor  the  distribution  of  the  achievements 
of  society  can  not  be  left  to  be  operated  by  a  few 
interested  individuals  or  to  a  small  class  of  men. 
If  culture  in  its  best  sense  is  "the  total  technique 
for  getting  things  done,"  the  promotion  of  civ- 
ilization consists  in  the  "popularization  or  demo- 
cratization of  the  use  of  culture." 


CHAPTER  XI 

THE   EQUALIZATION    OF   OPPORTUNITY 

WE  have  hitherto  concluded  that  the  thought 
of  well-being  lies  at  the  very  center  of  the 
conception  of  progress  and  assists  in  differenti- 
ating progress  from  evolution.  In  so  far,  there- 
fore, as  society  presents  a  system  in  which  the 
well-being  of  any  or  a  large  number  of  individ- 
uals is  unnaturally  restricted,  the  possibility  of 
equalizing  conditions  among  men  becomes  an  im- 
portant consideration. 

Equality  and  Social  Justice 

To  whatever  degree  equality  among  men  is 
possible,  its  desirability  must  rest  upon  social 
justice.  It  is  theoretically  conceivable  that  equal- 
ity might  be  possible  and  yet  be  undesirable. 
However,  if  social  justice  demands  it  there  is  no 
justification  for  preventing  its  realization.  For, 
in  part,  justice  is  the  habitual  principles  of  hu- 
man relationships  men  have  worked  out  empiric- 
ally and  that  have  come  to  regulate  those  actions 
which  have  an  effect  on  others.  But  the  concep- 
tion of  social  justice  also  involves  our  idea  of 
what  human  relationships  should  be,  and,  as  is  the 
case  with  all  well-founded  ideals,  the  accom- 
123 


124  Sociology 

panying  imperative  which  demands  that  the  ideal 
shall  be  realized  is  strong. 

It  is  well  to  recognize  that  the  idea  of  human 
equality  is  liable  to  valid  criticism,  but  there  is  no 
sanction  for  the  extreme  attack  which  has  been 
directed  against  the  positive  claims  made  in  the 
Declaration  of  Independence.  The  purpose  of 
that  document  was  not  to  give  a  precise  defini- 
tion and  exposition  of  terms  but  to  make  clear 
and  positive  statements  that  would  grip  the  men 
of  the  time  and  secure  their  assent.  Further- 
more, Jefferson's  assertions  contain  more  truth 
than  the  statements  of  the  opponents  of  human 
rights.  Were  the  attacks  made  against  the  con- 
ception of  equality  well-motived  and  intended 
to  advance  social  well-being,  such  criticisms 
would  be  valuable ;  but  too  often  they  are  thinly 
veiled  attempts  to  disparage  aspirations  toward 
democracy  and  to  promote  a  system  of  in- 
equalities. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  absolute  equality  among 
men  is  non-existent  and  practically  impossible  of 
realization.  Only  a  little  reflection  is  required  to 
show  that  in  respect  of  weight,  stature,  strength, 
appearance,  and  other  physical  characteristics 
men  are  neither  born  equal  nor  destined  to  de- 
velop into  beings  that  are  equal.  It  is  almost  as 
obvious  that  a  profound  inequality  exists  among 
individuals  in  their  mental  capacities,  for  native 
capacity  grades  up  through  a  series  of  interme- 


The  Equalization  of  Opportunity      125 

diate  intellectual  stages  from  the  imbecile  to  the 
genius.  Being  congenitally  unequal  in  capacity, 
the  individuals  can  never  become  equal  by  devel- 
opment. Likewise  it  is  apparent  that  there  is  a 
great  diversity  in  the  social  conditions  into  which 
men  are  bom.  Fortune  determines  that  some 
shall  be  born  to  wealth  and  position  and  that 
others  shall  inherit  poverty  and  obscurity ;  and 
these  conditions  of  birth  have  great  influence  in 
determining  to  what  economic  and  social  attain- 
ment the  individuals  shall  arrive. 

It  is  somewhat  patent  that  if  we  were  to  base  a 
doctrine  of  equality  on  the  facts  of  birth  and  of 
prevalent  social  relationships,  we  would  have  to 
conclude  that  fate  has  decreed  a  social  system  in 
which  inequalities  are  inherent.  And  perhaps 
we  would  further  incline  to  a  justification  of  a 
class  system  in  society  which  would  correspond 
to  the  outlines  of  the  various  congenital  classes. 
Thus  the  strong  and  the  able  would  form  the 
upper  classes,  and  the  weak  and  the  mentally 
deficient  would  constitute  the  lower.  And  could 
the  restraints  of  a  well-estabHshed  system  of 
relationships  be  overcome,  no  doubt  human  be- 
ings would  be  sifted  out  on  the  basis  of  capacity 
and  settled  in  an  order  of  social  classes  which 
would  conform  to  their  various  grades  of  ability. 
Further,  if  the  strong  and  the  able  were  always 
well-disposed,  such  an  arrangement  would  pre- 
sent a  social  order  based  on  a  large  measure  of 


1 26  Sociology 

so-called  natural  justice.  Because  congenital  ca- 
pacity constantly  determined  where  each  indi- 
vidual should  serve  in  the  system,  there  would 
occur  a  perpetual  adjustment  of  individuals  to 
the  social  order. 

Unfortunately  our  social  system  was  not  estab- 
lished on  any  such  principle,  and  human  beings 
are  not  regimented  according  to  their  capacities 
and  their  developed  abilities.  And  it  is  quite 
certain  that,  if,  suddenly,  society  could  be  ar- 
ranged according  to  that  scheme,  it  would  not 
perpetuate  itself  according  to  the  principle  of 
congenital  capacity  so  that  "natural  justice" 
would  continue.  For  the  able  individuals  who 
occupied  the  places  of  power  would  insist  that 
their  offspring,  whatever  their  capacities,  should 
retain  the  positions  of  the  parents.  As  a  conse- 
quence, the  natural  method  of  establishing  the 
social  relationships  would  be  broken  down  and 
a  system  of  inequalities  would  be  established.  It 
is  quite  obvious  that  a  "natural  order"  would 
soon  be  wrecked  on  the  rock  of  privilege. 

Since  men  are  born  unequal,  and  since  the 
social  system  tends  to  perpetuate  such  inequali- 
ties as  obtain,  what  then  does  social  justice  re- 
quire? Evidently  it  does  not  require  the  impos- 
sible, and  proclaim  that  the  genius  and  the  imbe- 
cile should  be  considered  equal.  It  does  demand, 
however,  that  every  human  being  should  be  given 
opportunity  to  develop  his  powers  to  their  limits, 


The  Equalization  of  0 Importunity      127 

and  that  no  restrictions  should  be  allowed  to  pre- 
vent that  development. 

Removal  of  Artificial  Restrictions 

It  is  difficult  to  appreciate  the  operations  of 
the  minds  of  these  who  would  maintain  that  the 
present  social  order  actually  realizes  social  jus- 
tice ;  that  every  individual  obtains  his  righteous 
deserts,  and  that  there  are  no  inequalities  of  op- 
portunity. For  it  would  appear  evident,  to  the 
fair-minded  man,  that  many  such  inequalities 
exist,  and  that  multitudes  of  able  and  deserving 
men  and  women  enjoy  only  a  minimum  of  that 
well-being  to  which  their  gifts  entitle  them.  To 
deny  this  is  to  overlook  many  startling  facts  as 
well  as  to  assert  that  whatever  happens  is  right. 
Such  a  position  would  have  to  maintain  that  the 
450,000  men  who  were  unemployed  in  the  city 
of  New  York  during  the  winter  of  1914-15,  a 
small  part  of  those  in  the  entire  nation,  received 
their  just  deserts.  Yet  the  majority  of  those 
workers  had  been  thrown  out  of  employment  in 
which  they  had  shown  themselves  steady,  intelli- 
gent, skilled,  and  ambitious  citizens.  It  would 
have  to  demonstrate  that  social  conditions  have 
no  influence  on  human  development,  and  that 
criminals,  paupers,  prostitutes,  and  the  wreck- 
ages of  child  labor  invariably  have  determined 
their  own  destiny,  in  spite  of  any  and  all  circum- 
stances.    Because  such  a  position,  when  its  Ic- 


128  Sociology 

gitimate  results  are  stated,  reveals  its  own  weak- 
ness it  is  unnecessary  to  devote  time  to  its  refu- 
tation. 

In  view  of  what  has  been  said  it  can  be  stated 
that  equality  of  opportunity  can  obtain  only 
when,  and  to  the  degree  to  which,  artificial  social 
hindrances  are  removed.  Again  we  are  likely  to 
be  met  by  the  assertion  that  many  of  the  results 
that  are  considered  artificial  restrictions  of  op- 
portunity are  in  reality  the  outcome  of  heredity, 
physical  environment,  or  ethnological  character- 
istics, none  of  which  can  be  eliminated.  Let  us 
admit  that  those  are  important  influences  for 
mankind  in  general,  but  insist  that  their  deter- 
minative efifects  must  not  be  overrated.  The  in- 
fluence of  heredity  has  been  recognized  in  the 
discussion  of  the  idea  of  equality.  It  doubtless 
diflferentiates  the  talented  from  the  feebleminded, 
and  completely  foreordains  the  position  of  the 
latter,  but  only  partially  that  of  the  former,  in 
society.  It  has  been  amply  demonstrated  by 
Odin,  Ward,  and  Davies  that  the  social  environ- 
ment is  the  important  factor  in  deciding  whether 
a  born  genius  will  or  w'ill  not  develop  into  an 
actual  genius,  according  as  it  offers  or  with- 
holds opportunities  for  development.  Inherit- 
ance bestows  capacity  but  cannot  guarantee  its 
development  as  ability ;  the  social  environment 
may  prove  an  insuperable  obstacle. 

In  like  manner  the  searching  work  of  the  pub- 


The  Equalization  of  Opportunity     129 

Heists  just  mentioned  has  proved  that  physical 
locaHty  and  ethnological  characteristics  exercise 
no  appreciable  influence  on  the  production  of 
talent.  Talent  is  likely  to  manifest  itself  irre- 
spective of  geographical  situations  and  emerge 
from  any  racial  group,  providing  the  fit  oppor- 
tunities are  ofifered  by  the  society.  And  while 
the  investigations  have  been  directed  toward  dis- 
covering what  conditions  determine  the  develop- 
ment of  talented  individuals,  it  is  most  probable 
that  their  results  are  applicable  to  the  masses  of 
people.  For  it  would  appear  that  the  conditions 
which  favor  or  retard  the  development  of  the 
talented  mind  also  influence  correspondingly  the 
minds  of  the  normal  individuals.  If  conditions 
are  able  to  check  potential  talent,  they  no  doubt 
exercise  a  greater  hindrance  over  the  average 
man. 

As  a  result  of  the  foregoing  considerations, 
we  may  conclude  that  the  conditions  which  pro- 
duce the  inequalities  of  opportunity  in  society, 
aside  from  the  factor  of  heredity,  are  resident  in 
the  social  system.  We  are  consequently  driven 
to  believe  that  the  dependable  hope  of  equalizing 
opportunities  lies  in  some  sort  of  social  reorgani- 
zation. And,  as  will  be  observed  in  a  subsequent 
place,  the  conditions  which  govern  heredity  may 
prove  subject  to  regulation.  Relative  to  the 
equalization  of  opportunity,  then,  the  removal 
from   society  of  what  may  be  termed   artificial 


130  Sociology 

restrictions  constitutes  the  foundation  of  op- 
timism. The  suggestion  is  of  fundamental  im- 
portance and,  consequently,  its  closer  scrutiny  is 
desirable. 

Direction  of  Equalization 

What  has  thus  far  been  said  justifies  the  belief 
that  the  causes  which  produce  inequalities  of 
opportunity  between  the  individuals  of  any  given 
social  system  are  to  be  discovered  in  the  system 
itself,  and  not  in  race  characteristics  and  the  ex- 
ternal physical  environment.  If  this  be  true,  the 
inference  is  inevitable  that  all  efforts  to  remove 
inequalities  must  be  directed  toward  readjusting 
the  fundamental  relations  and  processes  which 
society  expresses.  The  question  as  to  whether 
or  not  progress  is  possible  was  raised  in  a  pre- 
vious connection,  and  the  conclusion  involved 
belief  in  its  feasibility.  We  are  now  confronted 
by  the  necessity  of  showing  what  direction  efforts 
to  equalize  opportunity  should  take.  A  brief 
allusion  to  the  processes  by  which  inequalities 
arise  is  required  in  order  that  the  way  to  im- 
provement may  be  seen. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  the  process  by 
which  inequalities  eventuate  are  the  desire  of  a 
group  or  class  to  exploit  and  enjoy  the  productive 
ability  of  other  groups  or  classes,  the  actual  sub- 
jugation of  such  groups,  the  formation  of  a  sys- 
tem of  control  by  the  subjugating  group  by  which 


TJic  Equalization  of  Opportunity     131 

those  subordinated  may  be  continuously  exploited 
of  their  productivity,  and  the  accompanying  es- 
tablishment of  a  ruling  and  of  a  dominated  class. 
Social  scientists  have  demonstrated  beyond  per- 
adventure  that  when  the  state  arose  this  process 
accounted  for  its  genesis.  When  it  was  estab- 
lished it  was  formed  as  the  authoritative  system 
by  means  of  which  the  large  group  of  producers 
were  deprived  of  the  fruits  of  their  labors.  The 
ruling  class  possessed  the  power  to  maintain  the 
order  it  had  established  by  force,  and  it  further 
built  up  a  system  of  social  doctrine  and  sanctions, 
by  means  of  the  inculcation  of  which  the  subor- 
dinated group  was  gradually  reconciled  and  came 
to  view  the  social  order  as  a  sacred  system. 

While,  as  will  be  indicated  in  a  later  connec- 
tion, the  state  has  undergone  a  marked  transfor- 
mation since  its  establishment,  it  is  certain  that 
it  has  not  lost  all  of  its  primitive  characteristics. 
\\'ithin  the  social  order  of  which  it  is  a  part,  the 
desire  of  a  strong  class  to  secure  the  fruits  of 
labor  of  other  classes  without  adequate  compen- 
sation, the  control  of  the  industrial  organization 
through  which  the  social  product  is  distributed 
so  that  the  producing  class  can  be  exploited,  a 
large  influence  over  the  state,  the  regulative 
agency  of  society,  and  a  somewhat  successful 
command  of  the  organs  of  publicity  by  which 
opinions  relative  to  the  fairness  of  the  social 
system  are  founded,  still  measurably  obtain.  Due 


132  Sociology 

reflection  upon  the  facts  of  the  distribution  of 
wealth  and  incomes  in  the  United  States,  of  the 
methods  which  the  great  industrial  organizations 
have  employed  to  increase  their  profits  unduly, 
and  of  the  exploitive  motive  of  business  gen- 
erally, will  convince  the  candid  mind  that  the 
principle  of  exact  justice  does  not  control  the 
ordering  of  our  present  system. 

A  fundamental  and  adequate  method  of  im- 
proving the  present  social  order  must  begin  with 
the  attempt  to  secure  an  efficient  system  regulat- 
ing the  production  and  distribution  of  wealth. 
And  this  is  placed  first,  not  because  it  is  thought 
that  wealth  is  the  most  important  consideration 
in  life,  but  because  it  is  the  means  which  com- 
mands the  avenues  to  the  successful  attainment 
of  all  the  other  great  interests.  It  regulates  the 
control  of  leisure  by  which  access  to  education, 
culture,  and  the  higher  blessings  of  life  are  made 
possible.  Since  the  state  is  the  agency  which  the 
masses  of  men  must  depend  on  to  safeguard  their 
interests,  they  must  seek  to  adapt  that  institution 
in  such  fashion  that  it  will  perform  its  full  duty. 

Since  economic  inequalities  have  to  do  with 
the  distribution  of  wealth,  attempts  of  the  state 
to  exercise  regulative  functions  cannot  avoid 
dealing  with  the  institution  of  private  property. 
The  unlimited  power  over  the  channels  of  pro- 
duction and  distribution  of  wealth  cannot  be  left 
in  the  hands  of  a  class.    The  very  fact  that  a  few 


The  Equalization  cf  Opportunity     133 

men  enjoy  incomes  greater  than  that  of  many  of 
our  states,  while  milHons  of  able  and  deserving 
men  have  a  bare  subsistence,  is  a  great  injustice 
and  a  perpetual  menace  to  social  democracy.  It 
is  the  part  of  wisdom  that  the  citizenship,  acting 
through  the  state,  shall  place  limits  on  the  size  of 
private  fortunes  and  establish  a  system  of  taxa- 
tion so  graduated  that  all  wealth  and  income 
above  that  limit  shall  return  to  the  state. 

While  the  regulation  of  the  economic  processes 
is  seen  to  be  fundamental,  because  wealth  is  the 
basis  of  realization  in  general,  the  precondition  to 
successful  regulation  and  to  the  removal  of  all 
inequalities  consists  in  the  use  of  the  intellectual 
faculties.  The  human  mind  is  the  agent  by  means 
of  which  all  improvements  have  come.  This  is 
as  true  of  the  business  of  society  as  it  is  of  that 
of  private  individuals.  In  the  last  analysis,  so- 
ciety moves  forward  to  better  conditions  in  the 
measure  of  the  enlightenment  of  its  constituent 
members.  The  condition  of  the  masses  of  peo- 
ple cannot  be  improved  until  they  are  intelligent 
enough  to  see  the  value  of  changed  methods  of 
living.  Nor  can  it  be  expected  that  permanent 
readjustments  in  the  social  system  are  to  be  real- 
ized before  the  body  of  citizens  become  intelli- 
gent about  social  relationships.  Intelligence,  of 
course,  means  information  and  education. 

The  only  remedy  for  the  inequalities  of  life 
and  for  the  subordination  of  class  by  class  is  to 


134  Sociology 

be  found  in  the  establishment  of  an  educational 
system  that  places  a  premium  on  modern  thought, 
and  the  instruction  of  all  in  the  social  sciences; 
and  the  accompanying  ordering  of  a  system  of 
publicity  which  guarantees  that  accurate  and  full 
information  about  industrial  and  political  affairs 
shall  be  vouchsafed.  It  is  astounding  that  in  the 
educational  system  of  a  democracy,  which  sup- 
posedly prepares  for  the  functions  of  citizen- 
ship, the  great  majority  of  the  youth  who  pass 
out  of  elementary  schools,  high  schools,  and  uni- 
versities, have  never  studied  the  social  organiza- 
tion which  involves  their  destinies.  It  is  further 
remarkable  that  the  promotion  of  publicity,  the 
work  of  circulating  the  facts  pertaining  to  the 
affairs  of  industrial  production  and  of  the  state, 
is  left  to  agencies  which  operate  for  profit,  and 
which,  therefore,  are  under  the  control  of  the 
exploitive  interest  in  man.  The  wise  man  knows 
that  the  social  millennium  will  not  soon  dawn  be- 
cause society  has  not  created  the  fit  agencies  by 
which  an  adequate  adjustment  can  be  brought 
about. 


A 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE   ELIMINATION    OF   THE   UNFIT 

REDUCTION  in  the  number  of  unfit  ele- 
ments in  society  and  the  ultimate  complete 
elimination  of  that  class  of  human  beings  con- 
stitutes a  suitable  consideration  for  the  closing 
chapter  of  an  outline  of  sociology.  For  not- 
withstanding the  admirable  collective  sentiments 
and  the  loving  care  of  parents  the  existence  of 
such  individuals  evokes,  any  considerable  accu- 
mulation of  abnormal  and  devitalized  persons  in 
a  society  forms  a  very  grave  menace.  Under  a 
regime  of  natural  selection  such  an  accumulation 
was  impossible  because  nature  weeded  out  the 
physically  and  mentally  deficient  individuals  and 
so  prevented  their  breeding.  Yet,  as  we  have 
observed  in  preceding  pages,  social  selection  has 
mitigated  the  processes  of  nature  in  this  respect 
and,  consequently,  has  placed  a  premium  on  the 
preservation  of  multitudes  of  inefficient  persons. 
And  while  the  mere  fact  of  the  existence  of  a 
large  percentage  of  incompetents  is  to  be  de- 
plored, the  really  serious  thought  is  that  by  their 
unchecked  reproduction  the  proportion  of  such 
individuals  is  increased  and  the  strength  and 
vigor  of  the  whole  human  stock  is  lowered.     It 

135 


136  Sociology 

is  inconceivable  that  social  evolution  could  con- 
tinue in  the  direction  of  progress  under  the  reign 
of  such  conditions.  On  the  contrary,  we  would 
have  to  expect  it  to  flounder,  halt,  and  eventually 
to  become  regressive. 

The  Situation 

The  socially  unfit  consists  of  those  individuals 
who  by  reason  of  serious  defects  of  any  kind 
are  rendered  dependent  for  their  care  and  sup- 
port upon  the  efforts  of  others.  That  the  extent 
of  this  class  of  persons  is  enormous  is  the  testi- 
mony of  statistics  and  observation.  Should  we 
enumerate  the  number  of  insane,  feebleminded, 
epileptics,  chronic  paupers,  "  habitual  "  and  "  in- 
stinctive "  criminals,  tuberculous,  cancerous,  blind 
and  deaf,  not  to  mention  milder  forms  of  defi- 
ciency, which  exist  in  the  United  States,  the 
result  would  have  to  be  recorded  in  millions. 
Conceding  that  some  of  the  classes  may  have  a 
degree  of  conventionality  and  fluctuation,  the  out- 
come is  not  greatly  changed.  And  while  the 
question  of  whether  or  not  certain  kinds  of  these 
defectives  are  increasing  faster  than  the  popula- 
tion is  a  decidedly  vital  one,  perhaps  the  more 
serious  consideration  is  that  such  colossal  defi- 
ciency exists  in  a  "  civilized  "  social  order,  and 
how  far  society  and  its  members  generally  are 
weakened  by  its  presence.  Should  we  compare 
the  present  situation  with  our  vision  of  the  social 


TJie  Elimination  of  the  Unfit        137 

Utopia,  with  our  ideal  society,  we  must  be  truly 
astounded  that  our  civilization  harbors  so  much 
waste  humanity  and  misery. 

The  Origin  of  the  Unfit. 

The  easy  view  of  the  origin  of  the  unfit  is  that 
they  are  the  products  of  an  inscrutable  Provi- 
dence, perhaps  created  to  chasten  the  parents  or 
to  offer  due  scope  for  the  exercise  of  benevo- 
lence on  the  part  of  the  wealthy.  Quite  as  com- 
placent a  position  is  that  the  impoverished  class 
is  wholly  the  result  of  the  volitional  stupidity  and 
inefficiency  of  its  members.  The  naturalistic  view 
regards  all  derelicts  as  the  "  unfit  "  which  natural 
selection  and  the  struggle  for  existence  of  a  sheer 
biological  evolutionary  process  are  seeking  to 
discard.  The  sociological  position  represents 
them  as  the  product  of  societal  conditions,  the 
results  being  mediated  or  actuated  by  means  of 
biological  processes.  The  advantage  of  the  lat- 
ter position  is  visible  in  the  foundation  it  lays 
for  remedial  action,  for  if  such  derelicts  are  the 
products  of  Providence  or  of  a  purely  biological 
process  they  are  obviously  beyond  the  reach  of 
human  control.  Besides,  it  is  the  scientific  atti- 
tude because  it  coincides  with  the  facts. 

Most  of  the  deficiency  of  humanity  that  col- 
lectively bulks  as  the  unfit  has  an  immediately 
biological  cause.  There  can  be  no  question  that 
this   is  true  of   most    feeblemindedness,   idiocy. 


138  Sociology 

much  of  epilepsy,  blindness,  deafness,  and  cer- 
tain diseases  which  render  individuals  incompe- 
tent. Researches  in  the  field  of  mental  deficiency 
have  amply  demonstrated  that  feeblemindedness 
in  all  its  forms  descends  from  generation  to  gen- 
eration according  to  well-known  laws  of  heredity. 
The  same  is  true  of  congenital  blindness,  deaf- 
ness, epilepsy,  certain  kinds  of  insanity,  of  spon- 
taneous cancer,  and  probably  of  other  deficiencies. 
We  may  select  a  case  within  these  limits  and  be 
assured  that  its  immediate  determining  conditions 
are  to  be  found  in  the  parent  stock.  Deficiencies 
of  a  kind  beget  deficiencies  of  that  kind  with 
Mendelian  regularity  and  certainty. 

Further,  it  is  known  that  some  of  the  defi- 
ciencies that  are  passed  on  in  a  hereditary  man- 
ner arose  out  of  diseased  conditions.  This  is  true 
of  some  mental  and  physical  deficiencies.  Thus 
epilepsy,  idiocy,  feeblemindedness,  insanity,  deaf- 
ness, blindness,  and  so  on,  may  be  the  outcome 
of  syphilitic  poison  and  may  descend  in  Mendel- 
ian fashion.  It  could  hardly  fail  to  be  the  fact 
that,  once  pathological  inroads  have  been  made 
into  the  cell  structures  of  the  physical  organism, 
the  defects  should  be  passed  on  from  generation 
to  generation.  This  does  not  touch  the  question 
as  to  whether  or  not  acquired  characteristics  are 
transmitted. 

It  would  be  difficult  to  discover  what  propor- 
tion   of    human    deficiencies    and    misery    is    of 


The  Elimination  of  the  Unfit        139 

immediate  biological  origin  and  what  arose  out 
of  societal  inequalities.  But  it  is  necessary  to 
remember  that  many  of  the  ills  of  body  and  mind 
have  their  causal  conditions  in  the  illogical  and 
inhuman  strains  and  deprivations  which  the  pres- 
ent social  system  imposes.  Thus  the  dwarfed 
and  enfeebled  workers  in  many  cases  are  the 
products  of  child  labor,  insufificient  food,  and 
unsanitary  conditions  of  labor  and  of  living.  The 
portion  of  human  misery  such  societal  situations 
produce  must  be,  on  the  whole,  greater  than  that 
produced  by  biological  causes  operating  imme- 
diately. 

Again,  there  are  certain  so-called  pathological 
conditions  of  society  which  produce  societal  mis- 
fits. The  presence  of  prostitution  with  its  attend- 
ant venereal  diseases,  and  of  alcoholism  with  its 
well-known  physical  and  mental  ills,  is  illustra- 
tive. Like  societal  inequalities,  they  are  condi- 
tions set  up  in  the  social  system  out  of  which 
come  great  misery  and  physical  and  mental  defi- 
ciencies, some  of  which  entail  hereditary  conse- 
quences. 

What  seems  to  be  true  is  that  modern  men  are 
so  enveloped  by  the  societal  environment  that  it 
not  only  conditions  their  present  societal  state 
but  is  the  fruitful  and  ultimate  cause  of  the  phys- 
ical and  mental  qualities  of  descendants.  The 
societal  system  determines  under  what  biological 
conditions  men  shall  associate  and  work  and,  con- 


140  Sociology 

sequently,  what  they  will  transmit  as  a  physical 
and  mental  heritage  to  their  descendants. 

Elimination  of  the  Unfit 

By  reason  of  what  has  been  sketched  in  the 
immediately  preceding  paragraphs  we  have  an 
indication  of  the  lines  of  procedure  by  which 
society  may  get  rid  of  its  misery,  in  so  far  as  its 
misery  is  identified  with  the  existence  of  the  unfit 
classes.  Since  that  portion  of  societal  ills  which 
is  the  product  of  the  inequalities  of  the  existing 
social  order  has  received  consideration  in  a  sep- 
arate chapter,  and  the  methods  of  its  abolition 
were  there  sketched,  no  further  notice  of  it  will 
be  taken.  Besides  that,  as  we  have  seen,  there 
are  present  in  society  the  hereditary  causes  of  the 
unfit,  however  they  may  have  started,  the  vices, 
alcoholism,  crime  and  dependency,  not  to  speak 
of  many  diseases,  such  as  tuberculosis  and  can- 
cer. Tuberculosis  might  well  be  added  to  vice 
and  alcoholism  since  it  so  frequently  emerges 
from  depressed  classes,  and  consequently  is  a 
product  of  societal  maladjustment. 

First,  in  so  far  as  the  societal  unfit  are  the 
product  of  hereditary  factors  at  work  in  society, 
it  is  obvious  that  they  cannot  be  eliminated  by 
medical  treatment  nor  by  a  let-alone  policy.  Since 
the  cause  is  clear — inheritance — a  method  of  pre- 
venting a  recurrence  in  succeeding  generations 
by  means  of  transmission  is  essential,  and  the 


The  Elimination  of  the  Unfit        141 

only  way  to  accomplish  the  result  is  by  making 
reproduction  impossible.  This  imposes  the  nec- 
essary task  of  segregating  the  feebleminded  of 
all  types,  the  congenital  epileptics  of  advanced 
form,  the  hereditarily  insane,  and  "  instinctive  " 
criminals,  in  institutions  where  reproduction  is 
rendered  impossible.  This  is  the  only  certain 
method  of  accomplishing  the  desired  results.  It 
is  considered  here  that,  in  so  far  as  dependency 
and  crime  are  the  products  of  hereditary  factors, 
that  the  individuals  may  be  detected  by  clear 
symptoms  and  should  be  included  among  the 
segregated.  No  doubt  it  is  true  that  eugenic 
marriage  laws  and  such  operations  as  vasectomy 
may  accomplish  much,  but  the  latter  is  likely  to 
be  confined  to  institutional  practice,  and  the  for- 
mer does  not  prevent  reproduction  by  extra- 
legal means. 

Second,  prostitution  has  been,  for  a  long  time, 
a  quasi-societal  structure,  sometimes  provided 
for  by  regulation  and  sometimes  penalized  by 
law,  but  always  to  be  reckoned  with  as  an  exist- 
ing fact.  Its  train  of  diseases  and  afflictions, 
therefore,  have  an  intensely  societal  character- 
istic, the  whole  situation  often  being  termed  ''  the 
social  evil."  Since  vice  involves  a  continuous 
societal  relationship,  the  method  of  eliminating 
it  must  involve  recourse  to  social  measures.  In- 
vestigations of  prostitution  made  by  commissions 
created  in  various  American  cities  during  recent 


142  'Sociology 

years  uniformly  prescribe  absolute  prohibition  by 
law  as  the  only  adequate  means  of  combating 
vice,  and,  conversely,  they  agree  in  pronouncing 
the  method  of  segregating  and  regulating  prosti- 
tution so  largely  practiced  in  European  cities  a 
colossal  failure.  It  is  noteworthy  that  many  of 
the  most  eminent  physicians  of  Europe  have 
come  to  the  same  conclusion.  Vice  is  to  be 
stamped  out,  not  palliated.  This  will  require  leg- 
islation and  education  to  accomplish,  but  vice 
entails  such  widespread  and  deadly  results  that 
the  extremest  measures  should  be  approved. 

Third,  alcoholism  also  bears  an  institutional 
aspect,  having  been  practiced  so  widely  during 
the  past  and  so  uniformly  abetted  by  govern- 
ments. It  is  only  in  recent  times  that  it  has 
received  any  considerable  opposition  by  public 
opinion  and  legislation.  It  is  possible  to  be  judi- 
cious and  say  that  probably  over  twenty  per  cent 
of  insanity,  as  much  or  more  of  dependency,  and, 
perhaps,  fifty  per  cent  of  crime  are  immediately 
instigated  by  alcoholism.  It  is  condemned  by  the 
fact  that  it  is  the  uniform  associate  of  the  worst 
and  most  vicious  in  human  society. 

As  in  the  case  of  prostitution,  regulations 
which  continue  its  existence  are  palliatives  of  its 
evils  and  are  inefTectual  cures.  Men  have  no 
rights  that  need  to  be  regarded  where  the  evil 
consequences  are  so  disastrous  to  race  and  society 
as  in  this  case.    Absolute  prohibition  on  the  part 


TJic  Elimination  of  tJic  Unfit        143 

of  organized  society  is  the  only  effective  and 
finally  effectual  method  of  dealing  with  alco- 
holism. To  say  that  men  will  have  liquor  in 
spite  of  prohibitions  is  no  greater  argument 
against  prohibition  than  the  same  form  of  argu- 
ment is  against  legal  prohibitions  of  prostitution 
or  of  other  societal  ills. 

In  neither  case  can  prohibition  be  absolutely 
effective  so  long  as  large  communities  maintain 
flourishing  institutions,  protect  them  by  law,  and 
support  governments  and  educational  institutions 
with  derived  revenues.  But  every  expansion  of 
the  prohibition  circle  renders  the  system  more 
effective,  and  in  reason,  this  is  all  that  could  be 
expected  of  it. 

Until  prohibition  becomes  universal,  certain 
alleviatives  of  intemperance  must  be  made  use  of. 
If  drunkenness  is  a  disease  and  if  the  inebriate 
breeds  a  degenerate  will  adequate  institutional 
treatment  will  be  necessary  to  reclaim  devitalized 
personalities,  such  as  farm-colonies  for  inebriates, 
where  they  may  be  segregated  and  reinstated  by 
regimen  and  work. 

By  a  careful  scientific  observation,  study  and 
classification  of  the  unfit  and  especially  by  the 
attainment  of  a  knowledge  of  the  conditions 
which  produce  them,  it  should  be  possible  finally 
to  eliminate  that  class  of  persons  from  society. 
That  it  could  not  be  accomplished  in  a  generation 
must   be  patent.     First,   our  knowledge  of  the 


144  Sociology 

causes  of  such  individuals  is  by  no  means  com- 
plete ;  we  do  not  know  to  what  extent  many  of 
their  ills  are  immediately  biological  or  socio- 
logical, and,  as  a  consequence,  the  proper  pre- 
ventive measures  could  not  be  formulated.  Sec- 
ond, we  have  not  as  yet  the  social  mind  and  will 
with  which  to  appreciate,  favor,  and  adopt  suffi- 
cient eliminating  remedies.  It  will  take  much 
time  under  a  superior  system  of  education  and 
publicity  to  breed  a  zealous,  popular  intelligence 
in  behalf  of  such  reforms ;  and  with  our  present 
somewhat  backward  systems  it  will  necessarily 
require  longer.  The  outlook  is  that,  as  in  the 
case  of  the  equalization  of  opportunity,  several 
generations  probably  must  elapse  before  the 
masses  are  educated  up  to  the  point  of  adopting 
remedial  measures,  and  experiments  in  the  direc- 
tion of  just  the  right  eliminative  measures  have 
been  made.  But  society  is  almost  incalculably 
old,  the  progress  that  has  arisen  has  come  about 
by  fits  and  starts  all  through  the  ages,  and  conse- 
quently there  is  ground  for  hope  of  completing 
this  gigantic  task. 

However,  it  must  be  anticipated  that  there 
will  always  be  present  in  society,  in  spite  of 
eliminations  of  the  unfit,  a  best  and  a  worst,  the 
superior  and  the  inferior.  The  abolition  of  in- 
equalities and  the  elimination  of  the  unfit  could 
contemplate  no  more  than,  first,  the  establishment 
of  such  societal  conditions  that  individual  capac- 


The  Elimination  of  the  Unfit        145 

ity  would  never  meet  artificial  obstacles  of  the 
monopolistic  and  class  species  in  seeking  to  real- 
ize itself ;  and,  second,  that  until  subnormal 
societal  members  should  become  obsolescent, 
within  the  sphere  of  the  normal  all  shadings  of 
physical  and  mental  capacity  would  be  found 
existant. 


REFERENCES 

CHAPTER  I 

Blackmar  and  Gillin.  Outlines  of  Sociology,  Pt.  I, 
Ch.  II. 

Ellwood,  C.  a.  Sociology  in  its  Psychological  As- 
pects, Chs.  III-IV. 

GiDDiNGS,  F.  H.     Principles  of  Sociology,  Pt.  I,  Ch.  II. 

Ross,  E.  A.     Foundations  of  Sociology,  Ch.  I. 

Small,  A.  W.     General  Sociology,  Ch.  I. 

Ward,  L.  F.     Outlines  of  Sociology,  Ch.  I. 

CHAPTER  II 

Baldwin.  J.  M.  "The  Basis  of  Social  Solidarity." 
American  Journal  of  Sociology,  15:  817  ff. 

Blackmar  and  Gillin.  Outlines  of  Sociology,  Pt.  II. 
Ch.  I. 

Chapin,  F.  S.     Social  Evolution,  Ch.  IV. 

Ellwood.  Sociology  in  Its  Psychological  Aspects,  Ch. 
VII. 

GiDDiNGS.  Readings  in  Descriptive  and  Historical  Soci- 
ology, Ch.  II. 

Gillette,  J.  M.  "Ward's  Conception  of  the  Origin  of 
Society,"  Ainer.  Journ.  Social.^  20:  31-4. 

Parmelee,  Maurice.  The  Science  of  Human  Behavior, 
Ch.   XVII. 

Sumner,  W.  G.    Folkivays.  Ch.  I. 

147 


148  References 

CHAPTER  III 
General 

Hayes,  E.  C.     Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sociology, 

Pt.  HI,  Chs.  XXVH-XXX. 
Parmelee,     The  Science  of  Human  Behavior,  Ch.  XX. 

Races 

Chapin.     Social  Evolution,  Ch.  VH. 
Deniker,  J.     The  Races  of  Man. 
Keane,  a.  H.     Ethnology. 
Ward,    Pure  Sociology,  pp.   193-220. 

Language 

Drum  MONO,  Henry.     Ascent  of  Man,  Ch.  V. 

Keane.     Ethnology,  Ch.  IX. 

GiDDiNGS.    Principles  of  Sociology,  pp.  221-226. 

The   State 

Blackmar  and  Gillin.     Outlines  of  Sociology,  Pt.  II, 

Ch.   VII. 
GiDDiNGS.     Principles   of  Sociology,  p.   319  ff. 
Oppenheimer,  Franz.     The  State. 
Ward.     Pure  Sociology,  pp.  203-212. 
Wilson,  Woodrow.     The  State,  Ch.  I. 

Religion 

Deniker.     The  Races  of  Man,  pp.  224-233. 
King,  Irving.     The  Development  of  Religion. 
Menzies,  Allan.     History  of  Religion,  Chs.  II-VI. 
Thomas,  W.    I.     Source  Book  for  Social  Origins,   Pt. 

VI. 
Tvlor,  E.  B.     Anthropology,  Chs.  XIV-XV. 


References  149 

The  Industrial  Order 

Deniker.     The  Races  of  Man,  Ch.  V. 
Ely,  R.  T.     Studies  in  the  Evolution  of  Industrial  So- 
ciety. 
Spencer,  Herbert.     Principles  of  Sociology,  Pt.  VIII. 

The  Family 

Dealey,  J.  Q.     The  Family  in  Its  Sociological  Aspects. 

Deniker.     The  Races  of  Man,  Ch.  VII. 

Gillette.     The  Family  and  Society  (The  National  Social 

Science  Series). 
Letourne.\u,  C.     The  Evolution  of  Marriage. 
Howard,  G.  E.    History  of  Matrimonial  Institutions. 
Todd,  A.  J.     The  Primitive  Family  as  an  Educational 

Agency. 
Westermarck,  E.  a.    History  of  Human  Marriage. 

Education 

Thomas.     Source  Book  for  Social  Origins,  Pt.  II. 
Ward.    Dynamic  Sociology,  Vol.  II,  pp.  180-189;  Applied 
Sociology,  Ch.  X. 

CHAPTER  IV 

Chapin.     Social  Evolution. 

Dealey.     Sociology,  Ch.  IX. 

FxLwooD.     Sociology  in  Its  Psychological  Aspects,  Ch. 

XVIII. 
GiDDlNGS.     Principles  of  Sociology,  Bk.  III. 
Gillette,  "Ward's  Social  Statics  and  Dynamics,"  Amer. 

Journ.  Sociol.,  20:41-52. 
Hayes.     Introduction   to   the  Study  of  Sociology,  Chs. 

XXV-XXVI. 


1 50  References 

Keller,  A.  G.     Societal  Evolution.  Ch.  I. 
Small  and  Vincent.    Introduction  to  the  Study  of  So- 
ciety, Pt.  I.  Ch.  V. 
Spencer.     Principles  of  Sociology,  Pt.  II,  Chs.  I-III. 


CHAPTER  V 

Blackmar  and  Gillin.    Pt.  II,  Ch.s.  I-II. 

Fairbanks,   Arthur.     Introduction    to   Sociology,   Ch. 

VI. 
Parmelee.     The  Science  of  Human  Behavior,  Ch.  XX. 
Ross.    Foundations  of  Sociology,  Ch.  VIII. 
Small   and    Vincent.     Introduction    to    the   Study    of 

Society,  Bk.  III. 
Spencer.     Principles  of  Sociology,   Pt.  I,  Chs.   II-IV; 

Pt.  II,  Chs.  Ill,  XI. 

CHAPTER  VI 

Blackmar  and  Gillin.     Outlines  of  Sociology,  Ch.  I. 

Cooley,  C.   H.     Social  Organization,   Pt.    I. 

Ellwood.    Sociology  in  Its  Psychological  Aspects,  Ch.  I. 

Fairbanks.     Introduction   to  Sociology.   Pt.   I. 

Giddings.  Readings  in  Descriptive  and  Historical  So- 
ciology, Bk.   I,   Ch.   III. 

Gillette.  "The  Organic  Concept  and  Society,"  Quar- 
terly Journal  of  the  University  of  North  Dakota,  4, 
245-258. 

Haves.  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sociology,  Ch. 
.  XIX. 

Ross.     Foundations  of  Sociology.  Ch.  I. 

Small.     General  Sociology,  Ch.  I. 

Spencer.    Principles  of  Sociology,  Pt.  II,  Ch.  I-II. 


References  151 

CHAPTER  VII 

CooLEY.    Social  Organisation,  Pts.  IV-V. 

Ellwood.  Sociology  in  Its  Psychological  Aspects,  Ch. 
XVII. 

GiDDiNGS.  Readings  in  Descriptive  and  Historical  So- 
ciology, Ft.  II. 

Ross.     Social  Control,  Pt.  I. 

Small.     General  Sociology,  Ch.  XXXI. 

Ward.     Pure  Sociology,  Chs.  X-XI. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

Anderson,  B.  M.     Social  Value,  Pt.  TV. 

Blackmar  and  Gillin.  Outlines  of  Sociology,  Bk.  Ill, 
Ch.  IV. 

BooDiN,  John  E.  "The  Existence  of  Social  Minds," 
Amer.  Joum.  Socioi,  19:1-47. 

CooLEY.     Social  Organisation,  Chs.  XI-XII. 

Dealey.     Sociology,   Ch.    IV. 

Ellwood.  Sociology  in  Its  Psychological  Aspects,  Ch. 
XV. 

Fairbanks.    Introduction  to  Sociology,  Ch.  V. 

Giddings.     "The  Elements  of  Sociology,"  Ch.  XII. 

Ross.  Foundations  of  Sociology,  Ch.  V ;  Social  Psy- 
chology. 

Small.    General  Sociology,  Chs.  XXV  and  XXXIX. 

CHAPTER  IX 

Drummond.     The  Ascent  of  Man,  pp.  41-57- 

Ellwood.     Sociology    and    Modern    Social    Problems, 

Ch.   II. 
Fairbanks.     Introduction  to  Sociology,  Chs.  XIV-XV. 
Keller.     Societal  Evolution,  Ch.  III. 


152  References 

Parmelee.     The  Science  of  Human  Behavior,  Ch.  XX. 
Ross.     Foundations  of  Sociology,  Ch.  IX. 
Small.     General  Sociology,  Ch.  XXVI. 
Thompson,  J.  A.    Heredity,  Ch.  XIV. 

CHAPTER  X 

Baldwin.    Social  and  Ethical  Interpretations  in  Mental 

Development,  First  Ed.,  Ch.  XIII. 
Blackmar  and  Gillin.     Outlines  of  Sociology,  Pt.  IV, 

Ch.  I. 
CooLEY.     Social   Organization,  Ch.   II. 
Dealey.     Sociology,  Ch.  IX. 
Ellwood.     Sociology  in  Its  Psychological  Aspects,  Ch. 

XVIII. 
GuMPLOwicz,   LuDWiG.     "An  Austrian  Appreciation  of 

Lester  F.  Ward,"  Amer.  J  own.  Sociol.,  10:643-653. 
Hayes.  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Sociology,  Pt.  IV. 
Ross.     Social  Control,  Pt.  III. 

Spencer.     Principles  of  Sociology,  Pt.  II,  Ch.  I-III. 
Ward.    Pure  Sociology,  Chs.  X-XI ;  Applied  Sociology, 

Ch.  III. 
Woods,   E.   B.    "Progress   as   a    Sociological   Concept," 

Amer.  Journ.  Social.,  12:779  fif. 
Yarros,   Victor   S.     "Human    Progress ;   the   Idea   and 

the  Reality,"  Amer.  Journ.  Social.,  21:15-29. 

CHAPTER  XI 

Alden,  Percy.     Democratic  England. 

CooLEY.     Social  Organisation,   Pts.  III-IV. 

Croley,  H.  D.     Progressive  Democracy. 

Davies,  Geo.  A.    "A  Statistical  Study  of  the  Influence 

of  Environment,"  Quar.  Journ.    Univ.  N.  Dak.,  4, 

212-236. 


References  153 

Gillette.     "Utilization     of     Talent,"    Popular    Science 

Monthly.     Nov.,  1915,  pp.  151-164. 
Nearing,  Scott.     Social  Adjustment. 
Oppenheimer.     The  State,  Chs.  VI-VII. 
Small.     General  Sociology,  Ch.  XXVII. 
Ward.     Applied  Sociology,  especially  Chs.  IX-XIII. 
W.\RD  and  Dealey.     Text  Book  of  Sociology,  Ch.  XX. 
Weyl,  W.  E.     The  New  Democracy. 

CHAPTER  XII 

Davenport,  C.   B.     Heredity   in  Relation  to  Eugenics. 

Devine,  E.  T.     Misery  and  Its  Causes. 

Ellwood.  Sociology  and  Modem  Social  Problems, 
Chs.  XIII-XIV. 

Ferrero,  G.  L.  Criminal  Man  According  to  the  Classifi- 
cation  of  Cesare  Lombroso. 

Gillette,  French,  and  Davies.  "Insanity  in  North  Da- 
kota," Quart.  Journ.  Univ.  N.  Dak.,  5:139-164. 

Handbook  of  the  Mental  Hygiene  Movement  and  Ex- 
hibit. 

Haviland,  C.  F.  The  Treatment  and  Care  of  the  In- 
sane in  Pennsylvania. 

Henderson,  C.  R.  Dependents,  Defectives,  and  Delin- 
quents; The  Cause  and  Cure  of  Crime. 

Mangold,  G.  B.     Problems  of  Child  Welfare. 

Proceedings  of  the  Mental  Hygiene  Conference  and 
Exhibit. 

Salmon  and  Sanville.  The  Care  of  the  Insane  in  Two 
States. 

Walters,  H.  E.    Genetics. 


INDEX 


"Achievement"  theory  of  society,  69,  70 

Alcoholism,    effect    of,    139;    institutional    aspect,    142; 

prohibition  of,  142,  143 
Anthropology,  6 
Aristotle,  2,  66 

Baldwin,  J.  M.,  "imitation"  theory  of  society,  70,  71 
Biological  evolution,  51-53 

Caucasian  race  stock,  21 

Collective  mode  of  life,  104-106 

Communication    systems,   and   industry,    36;   and    social 

consciousness,  92,  93 
Compte,  August,  2 
Conquest  theory  of  the  state,  26,  27 
Conscience  and  community  consciousness,  96 
"Consciousness  of  kind"  theory  of  society,  72 
Cooperation  and  conflict  in  society,  10,  11 
Culture,  stage  of,  62-64  \  influence  on  social  order,  85 ; 

defined,  62,  122 

Darwin,  54 
Davies,  G.  A.,  128 

Economics,  7 

Education,  primitive,  18;  meaning  and  development  of, 
41-44 

Ellwood,  C.  A.,  and  the  "synthetic"  theory  of  society,  72 

Environment,  influence  on  society,  61,   128 

Equality  in  society,  123-127;  and  social  justice,  123-127; 
direction  of  equalization,  130-134;  only  remedy  for 
inequality,    133 

Ethnology,  6 

Evolution,  and  society,  I1-14;  developmental  principles, 
13;  as  quantitative  transformation,  45,  46;  as  quali- 
tative transformation,  46-48;  as  diversification,  48.  49; 
as    integration,    49,    50;    as    accommodation,    50,    51; 


156  Index 


social.    51-53;    biological,    51.    53;    factors    which   de- 
termine social,  54-65 ;  and  natural  selection,  103 ;  and 
progress,  no;  as  adaptation,  119 
Exchange  system  and  industry,  35,  ^,6 

Fagnet  on  progress,  115 

Family,  historical  meaning,  development,  37-41 

"Folkway"  theory  of  society,   72 

French  Revolution,  effect  on  nation,  86 

Germans,  and  science  of  economics,  3;  reason  of  in- 
tensive life,  65;  and  progress,   117 

Giddings,  F.  H.,  "consciousness  of  kind"  theory  of  so- 
ciety, 72 

Government,  6,  7 

Gumplowicz,  Ludwig,  26;  denies  progress,  116 

Habits,  80;  and  social  consciousness,  93,  94 

Heidelberg  man,  14 

Heredity  and  the  unfit,  137,  139,   140 

Imitation,  12;  theory  of  society,  70,  71 

Individual,  and  the  system,  108;  welfare  of,  in;  habit, 

n4;  and  his  righteous  deserts,  127;  unfit,  elimination 

of  the,  135-145 
Industrial  order,  arrival  and  development,  34-37 
Instincts,  80 

Institutions,  origin  of,  19-44;  sociological  view  of,  19,  20 
Insurance  scandal,  96,  97 
Intelligence,  condition  of  progress,  120 
"Interest"  theory  of  society,  71,  7- 

Justice,  social  and  social  conditions,  127,  128;  and 
wealth,  132,  133 

Labor,  development  in  status  of,  37 

Language,  24-26;  nexus  for  social  consciousness,  92 

Laws  and  public  sentiment,  95 

Locke  and  "social  contract"  theory,  66 

Man,  primitive,  15-18;  place  of  origin,  21 ;  migrations  of, 
22;  and  language,  24-26;  physical  environment,  54-57; 
impulses  and  desires,  57-6o;  race  stock,  60-62 


Index  157 


Marriage,  27;  development  of,  39-41;  eugenic  laws.   141 

Maxims  and  social  consciousness,  93 

Migrations  of  man,  22,  23 

Mind,  development,  14 ;  relation  of  to  society,  73-75 ; 
the  social.  88-91 ;  what  makes  the  social  possible. 
91-94;  coercive  and  evaluating  aspects  of,  94-98;  di- 
rection of,  98-100 

Mob-mindedness,  89 

Mongolian  and  original  human  stock,  22 

Morality,  and  social  mind,  96 

Mutuality  in   society,    103-107 

Natural  selection,  and  society.  101-103;  and  evolution, 
103;  heredity  and  variation.  105;  attitude  of  society 
toward.  105 

Neanderthal   man,    14 

Negro  characteristics,  22;  position  in  society,  60,  61; 
and  family  point  of  view.  94 

Oppenheimer,  Franz,  27,  64 
Opportunity,  equalization  of.   123-134 
"Organic  concept"  theory  of  society,  67-69 
Origin  of  society,  10-13 

"Pain  economy,"  112 

Panama  Zone  sanitation,   119 

Pithecanthropus  Erectus,  14 

Plato.  2,  45,  66 

"Pleasure  economy,"  112 

Politics,  science  of,  6,  7 

Population  of  United  States,  growth  of,  46 

Principles  of  Sociology,  67 

Private  property,   132 

Progress,    its   conditions,    1 10-122:    nature   of.    110-114; 

possibility  of,    114-119;   well-being  the   center  of  the 

conception,  123 
Prohibition  of  alcoholism  and  prostitution,  142,  143 
Prostitution,    and    social    conditions,    127,    139;    societal 

character,  141,  elimination  of,  142,  143 
Psychical  nature  of  society,  theories  of,  69-75  '•  the  social 

mind,  88-100 

Race,  prejudice,  22,;  disagreements.  94;  stock,  60-62 
Races,  origin  of,  21-24 


T  58  Index 


Ratzenhofer,  26;  "interest"  theory  of   societj-,  71,  72 
Religion,  rise  of,  17;  meaning  and  development  of,  29-34 
Ross,  E.  A.,  "social  contract"  theory  of  society,  73 
Rousseau,  "social  contract"  theory  of  society,  ^,  67 

Science,  sociology-  a,  i,  2;  social,  and  sociology,  5-8 

Sex,  appearance  of,  11,  12 

Small,  A.  W.,  "interest  theory"  of  society,  71,  72 

Social  consciousness,  89-91;  and  modern  progress,  113 

"Social  contract"  theory  of  the  state,  26;  origin  and 
meaning,  66,  67 

"Social  control"  theory  of  society,  7;^ 

Social  control  and  progress,  121 

Social  evolution,  nature  of,  45-53 ;  factors  which  de- 
termine, 54-65;  and  future  conditions,  116,  117 

Social  groups,  nature  of,  external,  64,  65 

Social  mind,  what  it  is,  88-91 ;  causes  of,  91-94;  coercive 
and  evaluating  aspects.  94-98;  direction  of,  98-100 

Social  order,  76-87;  evidence  of,  76-78;  causes  of.  78- 
82 ;  and  social  organization,  82-85 ;  changing  the,  85- 
87;  and  privileged  class,  115;  fails  to  realize  justice, 
127;  method  of  improving  the,  132 

Social  organization,  and  the  social  order,  82-85 

Social  selection,  society  and,  101-103;  factor  of  mutu- 
ality, 103-107;  method  of,  107-109 

Society,  and  task  of  sociology,  3,  5;  origin,  9-18;  defini- 
tions, 9,  10;  begins  where,  10-13;  earliest  human,  15- 
18;  compounding  of,  23.  24;  and  language.  24-26;  and 
the  state,  26-29;  religion  and,  29-34;  industrial  order 
in.  34-37;  family  and,  37-41;  and  education,  41-44; 
development,  45;  quantitative  transformation,  46; 
qualitative  transformation,  46,  47;  diversification,  48, 
49;  integration,  49,  50;  accommodation,  50,  51  ;  Negro 
and,  60,  61 ;  culture  stage,  62-64;  nature,  66-75;  "social 
contract"  theory,  66,  67 ;  "organic  concept"  theory, 
67-69;  theories  expressing  its  psychical  nature.  69-75; 
what  constitutes,  73-75 ;  social  order,  76-87 ;  psychical 
characteristics,  88;  social  mind,  88-100;  becoming 
conscious  of  itself,  98;  and  natural  selection,  101-103; 
mutuality,  103-107;  social  selection,  107-109;  progress, 
110-122;  equality,  123-127;  social  justice,  127;  artificial 
restrictions,  127-129;  equalization.  130-134;  elimination 
of  unfit  members.  135-145;  pathological  conditions, 
139,  140;  hope  for  its  future,  144- 


Index  1 59 

Sociology-,  the  science  of,   i-8;  development,  2,  3;  task. 

3,   4;    social    sciences   and,   5-8;   view   of    institutions. 

19,  20;   and  progress,   no;   of  control,   118,   119;  and 

the  unfit,  137 
Spencer,  Herbert,  2,  3,  54;  "organic  concept"  theory  of 

society,  67-69 
State,  origin  of  the.  26-29 

Sumner,  W.  G.,  "folkway"  theory  of  society,  72 
Sussex  man,  14 
"Synthetic"  theory  of  society,  72 

Talent,  128,  129 

Tarde,  and  "imitation"'  theory  of  society,  70,  71 

Transportation   and   industry,   35 

Unfit,  elimination  of  the.  135-145;  sources  of  the,  137 

Vico,  45 

Ward,  L.  F.,  2.  26,  "achievement"  theory  of  society,  69; 

128 
Wealth,  interest  in  society,  7;  and  class  control,  132,  133 
Whately,  78 


UNIVERSITY  of  CALIFORNIA 

AT 

LOS  ANGELES 

LIBRARY 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last 
date  stamped  below 


Mb     1990 

REC'D  LD-URL 

MAR  2  5  198t 


ml 


5m-6,'41(3644) 


UNF/ERSITY  of  CALIFORNIA 

AT 

LOS  ANGELES 

LIBRARY 


J^ 


HM66 
G599S 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


AA    000  848  070    9 


:  J 1 S  1     i  i 


uliliil 


mmm 


i\m 


i 


